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Abstract
The paper argues that popular music can act as a variety of journalism at certain historic moments and in specific contexts. Where mass media are weak and opposition political parties are frail, music can serve as the voice of the voiceless by offering subtle avenues of expression. Popular music can perform the journalistic function of communicating daily issues in ways that challenge the powerful and give a voice to the disadvantaged. Popular music competes and rivals mainstream journalism in the ways it addresses political, social and economic realities in repressive contexts. Whereas newspapers and magazines ridicule and lampoon the powerful within opinion columns and cartoons, music radio relies on subtle wordplay to denounce the mighty and powerful. The paper discusses popular journalism in relation to the way in which postcolonial popular Zimbabwean musicians have effectively communicated everyday life problems in their country. The main focus is on how three Zimbabwean musicians, especially from 1999 to 2005, have had their work “banned” from radio because of the way it was perceived to be challenging the Zimbabwean state. Music has clearly served as journalism in Zimbabwe. The music has been popular with the people. The paper argues that this kind of music should be critically explored as a form of popular journalism.
Notes
1. The topic of ‘‘music as journalism’’ or ‘‘news through music’’ resonates in new and old contexts in both developing and developed countries. For example, Chris Horrie and Kienda Hoji, my University of Westminster colleagues teaching Journalism and Music Studies respectively, have been advocating a conference to discuss the relation between music and journalism, especially after the French Suburbs Riots of 2006. Also in November 2006, Brian Martin Murphy who is an Associate Professor of Communication Studies/African Studies at Niagara University who met at the 2006 African Studies Association meeting in San Francisco, informed me that the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio network has a weekly programme called ‘‘Global Village’’ (cbc.ca/global village) with regular series titled ‘‘news through music’’ where they profile musicians from around the world who play the same role in their societies as what musicians in Zimbabwe have done. The most recent report was an ironic profile on a Kurdish pop star who has been arrested many times for his songs in Turkey where, on November 25 and 26, the World Conference on Music and Censorship will be held.
2. John Fiske (1992, p. 45) describes the “power-bloc” as an alliance of the forces of domination, expressed in state and other public institutions.
3. The crucial point here is that: “The people, like the power-bloc, should be thought of as alliances of interests rather than class. The people, then are shifting sets of allegiances, formed and reformed according to historical exigencies and specific material conditions, which may cut across social categories of class, race, gender, age and so on, but which cannot be disconnected from them” (Fiske, 1992, p. 46).
4. Researchers from outside the country have conducted most of the available research on Zimbabwean music.
5. “Chimurenga” is a Shona word coined after Sororenzou Murenga—the name of a distinguished legendary warrior of Zimbabwe's first Shona and Ndebele Uprisings of 1893 and 1896 rebellions against white rule in the 1890s (see the work of Terrence Ranger, Citation1967). An act of rebellion became a Chi-Murenga because great fighters after him were believed to be possessed by Murenga's spirit (Kwaramba, 1997, p. 4).
6. Zimbabwe has a population of 11.6 million people and a relatively small music market. Sales are affected by the prevalence of piracy.
7. Sungura refers to a genre of local popular music, with Shona lyrics accompanied by a distinct Zimbabwean dance.
8. Translated from Shona to English.
9. Munyaradzi Hwengwere, the then chief executive officer of the ZBC, a state-run broadcaster said: “I am not aware of the protest music which you say is not played on radio”, in The Daily News, 25 February 2003.
10. Interview with Munyaradzi Hwengwere, The Herald, 8 January 2002. The Herald ran a long and critical article entitled “Fame Creeps into Mukanya's Head Again” (22 February 2002). They accused Mapfumo of deliberately creating controversy through the mass media so as to sell his music.
11. Loveness Chikozho, ZBC Public Relations Officer, cited in The Daily News, June 26 2003.