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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 “Zelensky Accuses Russia of Torture and ‘Genocide’ After Bodies of Civilians Found,” CBC, 2 April 2022, https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/ukraine-war-bucha-1.6407343.
2 “Canadian MPs Unanimously Back Motion Calling Russian Attacks in Ukraine a ‘Genocide’,” CTV News, 27 April 2022, https://www.ctvnews.ca/politics/canadian-mps-unanimously-back-motion-calling-russian-attacks-in-ukraine-a-genocide-1.5878900.
3 For example, Svante E. Cornell, “International Reactions to Massive Human Rights Violations: The Case of Chechnya,” Europe-Asia Studies 51, no. 1 (1999): 85–100; Douglas Irvin-Erickson, “Genocide Discourses: American and Russian Strategic Narratives of Conflict in Iraq and Ukraine,” Politics and Governance 5, no. 3 (2017).
4 Jade McGlynn and Ian Garner, “Russia’s War Crime Denials Are Fuel for More Atrocities,” Foreign Policy, 23 April 2022, https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/04/23/propaganda-russia-atrocity-bucha/.
5 Ksenia Ermoshina and Francesca Musiani, “The Telegram Ban: How Censorship ‘Made in Russia’ Faces a Global Internet,” First Monday: University of Illinois at Chicago Library 26, no. 5 (2021), https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03215281/.
6 Matthew Ford and Andrew Hoskins, Radical War: Data, Attention, Control (London: Hurst; New York: Oxford University Press, 2022), 25.
7 See, for example, Gabriele Cosentino, Social Media and the Post-Truth World Order (Cham: Palgrave, 2020), 87–100.
8 Mykola Riabchuk, “Ukrainians as Russia’s Negative ‘Other’: History Comes Full Circle,” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 49, no. 1 (2016): 75–85.
9 @Nexta_TV, Twitter post, 15 April 2022, https://twitter.com/nexta_tv/status/1514967277137022977.
10 Timofei Sergeitsev, “Chto Rossiia dolzhna sdelat’ s Ukrainoi,” RIA Novosti, 3 April 2022, https://ria.ru/20220403/ukraina-1781469605.html.
11 @Vityzeva, Telegram post, 4 April 2022, https://t.me/vityzeva81/788401.
12 @nasha_stranaZ, Telegram post, 10 April 2022, https://t.me/c/1400700658/32243.
13 “Tak ubei zhe nemtsa, chtob on,/A ne ty na zemle lezhal.” This line is from the war correspondent Konstantin Simonov’s 1942 poem “Kill Him!” (Ubei ego!), which is widely taught in Russian schools and recited as part of memorial events in contemporary Russia. See, for example, N. V. Egorova, Pourochnye razrabotki po literature (Moscow: Bako, 2021), 295–7. For a translation, see Mike Munford, Wait For Me (Ripon: Smokestack, 2020).
14 Mark Edele, “Fighting Russia’s History Wars: Vladimir Putin and the Codification of World War II,” History and Memory 29, no. 2 (2017): 90–124.
15 @Vityzeva, Telegram post, 11 April 2022, https://t.me/vityzeva81/831702.
16 See, for example, @Vityzeva, Telegram post, 28 April 2022, https://t.me/vityzeva81/915499.
17 @Xenasolo, Twitter post, 11 April 2022, https://twitter.com/xenasolo/status/1513437939287695361.
18 Dmytro Plakhta, “Telegram as a Tool for Political Influence and Manipulation,” TV and Radio Journalism 19 (2020): 88–94, http://publications.lnu.edu.ua/collections/index.php/teleradio/article/download/2955/3195.
19 For Putin spreading conspiracy narratives, see @rian_ru, Telegram post, 7 April 2022, https://t.me/rian_ru/157645.
20 The site publico.ru, run by the newspaper Vedomosti, presents two experts’ opinions on a particular topic. Users vote on their favourite version of events. In the case of Bucha, 75 per cent of users voted for the argument that the West would never listen to Russia and were determined to fake atrocities and level false accusations as a result. “Bucha,” publico.ru, 4 April 2022, https://publico.ru/topics/bucha/.
21 Gregory Stanton, “The Rwandan Genocide: Why Early Warning Failed,” Journal of African Conflicts and Peace Studies 1, no. 2 (2009): 6–25; P. Suedfeld, “Reverberations of the Holocaust Fifty Years Later: Psychology’s Contributions to Understanding Persecution and Genocide,” Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne 41, no. 1 (2000): 1–9.
22 This phenomenon has also been widely observed in western democracies. For example, see Jacob Groshek and Karolina Koc-Michalska, “Helping Populism Win? Social Media Use, Filter Bubbles, and Support for Populist Presidential Candidates in the 2016 US Presidential Election,” Information, Communication & Society 20, no. 9 (2017): 1389–407.
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Ian Garner
Ian Garner is a historian and translator of Russian war propaganda. He completed his PhD at the University of Toronto in 2017. His first book, Stalingrad Lives: Stories of Combat & Survival (McGill-Queen’s UP, 2022) explores how Russian propagandists created an enduring narrative of martyrdom that has driven national ideology for eight decades. He is currently working on his second book, a text about youth and fascism in Vladimir Putin’s Russia.