1651: The Last Coronation in Scotland — An Anomaly?

Abstract

The last Scottish coronation occurred at Scone in 1651. Charles II’s Scottish coronation has either been completely forgotten or become the subject of distorted interpretations. It has long been suggested that this coronation was a hastily arranged affair, lacking sacredness without an anointing and involving little pomp, and thus minimal cost — almost humiliating, according to one modern view. Furthermore, historians have argued that Charles both resented this ceremony and could barely have found anything joyful in it. Yet Clarendon commented that it ‘passed with great solemnity and magnificence, all men making show of joy, and being united to serve his majesty’. How can one reconcile these positions? Why has this coronation been so neglected? In many respects, it was superseded by immediate events (Charles II’s disastrous military campaign and exile) and then overshadowed at the Restoration (and by the 1661 Westminster Abbey coronation). Nevertheless, 1651 remains of tremendous significance because it was paradoxically both usual and unusual and carried implications for the other kingdoms of the British Isles and their religious systems, not just for Scotland. With the addition of financial archival material unused by previous scholars, this article adopts a fresh approach that challenges the received historiography: by seriously addressing the question of disparity, it identifies what really was anomalous and what, in fact, was far from untypical or surprising.

Notes

1 This article was delivered as a paper in a modified form during ‘The ‘British’ Churches 1603–1707: From Dynastic Union to Anglo-Scottish Union’, conference, University of Kent, 22–23 June 2017.

2 See for examples: M. Lee, Jr., The ‘Inevitable’ Union and Other Essays on Early Modern Scotland (East Lothian, 2003), passim; T. Harris, Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy, 1685–1720 (London, 2006), p. 44; A. Keay, The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the Ceremonies of Power (London, 2008), pp. 46-7; and J. Morrill, “Uneasy Lies the Head that Wears a Crown”: Dynastic Crises in Tudor and Stewart Britain 1504–1746 (Reading, 2005), p. 31. In more populist history it has been relegated to but a passing mention and included in a chapter ‘The Crown, Without Glory’, see C. Spencer, To Catch A King: Charles II’s Great Escape (London, 2017), p. 62; whilst at the same time Spencer notes that following the coronation, ‘matters … were turning in the king’s favour’. See also A. Fraser, King Charles II (reprint, London, 1997), pp. 98, 119.

3 K. M. Brown et al. (eds), The Records of the Parliaments of Scotland to 1707 (St Andrews, 2007–20), 1649/1/71.

4 A reality that would not of course be enacted politically until the Act of Union in 1707.

5 See Keay, Magnificent Monarch, pp. 46-7. For an excellent analysis of the public celebrations at such occasions cf. D. Cressy, Bonfires and Bells: National Memory and the Protestant Calendar in Elizabethan and Stuart England (London, 1989). See also, J. Nicoll, A Diary of Public Transactions, ed. D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1836), pp. 16-17, 20.

6 See Harris, Revolution, p. 44; Keay, Magnificent Monarch, pp. 46-7; and Morrill, “Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown”, p. 31.

7 Edward, Earl of Clarendon, The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England Begun in the Year 1641, ed. W. D. Macray, 6 vols (Oxford, 1888), vol. V, p. 172.

8 The Royal Oak adventure would be solidified in memory by the King himself: see R. Hutton, Charles the Second: King of England, Scotland and Ireland (Oxford, 1989), pp. 67, 75; and P. Stamper, ‘The Tree that Hid a King: The Royal Oak at Boscobel, Shropshire’, Landscapes 3 (2002), pp. 19-35.

9 British Library [hereafter BL], Add. MS 6308, fol. 25r.

10 Mercurius Publicus … , 3–10 January 1660/1 (No. 1), p. i. This would seem to answer an argument made in E. Gregg, Queen Anne (2nd edition, New Haven and London, 2001), p. 3, that the birth of the boy was an embarrassment and the christening was therefore delayed. It seems that this was a perfectly credible anniversary date to have waited for, as the child was just over two months old (born 22 October 1660). As it happened the young Charles was not to live long and died on 5 May 1661, see R. Latham and W. Matthews (eds), The Diary of Samuel Pepys, 11 vols (London, 1971), vol. II, p. 95 (6 May 1661); see also G. E. C[okayne] et al. (eds), The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extant, Extinct or Dormant, 14 volumes in 15 parts (2nd edition, London or Stroud, 1910–98), vol. II p. 496.

11 J. P. C. Stuart, Marquis of Bute, Scottish Coronations (London, 1902), pp. 145-6.

12 National Records of Scotland [hereafter NRS], Kerr family papers, GD40/2/19/1/22, fol. 1r (John Campbell, first earl of Loudoun, Chancellor, Edinburgh, to Charles II, 16 August 1650). Cf. NRS, GD40/2/19/1/22–25: for further correspondence between John Campbell, first earl of Loudoun and Charles II (16 August–13 September 1650).

13 Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts, Relating to English Affairs, Existing in the Archives and Collections of Venice, and in other Libraries of Northern Italy, ed. R. Brown et al. (38 vols, London etc., 1864–1947), vol. XXVIII, 1647–52, p. 168.

14 Scone Palace had come to prominence thanks to Sir David Murray, a major supporter and benefactor of James VI and I: K. Brown, ‘Courtiers and Cavaliers: Service, Anglicization and Loyalty among the Royalist Nobility’, in J. Morrill (ed.), The Scottish National Covenant in its British Context 1638–51 (Edinburgh, 1990), pp. 155-92, at p. 169. Sir David Murray became Lord Scone in 1606 in Parliament, and in 1608 by charter. He was later advanced to the viscountcy of Stormont in 1621. (I. Cowan and D. Easson, Medieval Religious Houses, Scotland [second edition, London, 1976], p. 98). Out of the ruins of Scone Abbey, a considerable property was created. The ‘building as now seen is almost entirely the work of the architect William Atkinson for the third Earl of Mansfield, and it took shape between 1803 and 1812’ and sits as Scone Palace today. R. Welander et al., The Stone of Destiny: Artefact and Icon, Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Monograph Series, 22 (Edinburgh, 2003), pp. 175-8. For more details cf. C. McKean, The Scottish Chateau: Country Houses of Renaissance Scotland (Stroud, 2001), pp. 209–10; and https://scone-palace.co.uk/ last accessed 16 April 2020. I would like to thank in particular for their tremendous assistance: The Earl and Countess of Mansfield & Mansfield, and Sarah Adams archivist of Scone Palace.

15 See also, Welander et al., Stone of Destiny, p. 176; Cf. R. Holinshed et al. (eds), The Firste Volume … Chronicles of En[gland] … Scotlande, and Ire[land] … Faithfully gathered and set forth (London, 1571). For a detailed geological and historical analysis of the Stone of Scone, see Welander, Stone; and W. Rodwell, The Coronation Chair and Stone of Scone: History, Archaeology and Conservation (Oxford, 2013).

16 For the linguistic origins cf. OED. It is something of an understatement to suggest that the Stone of Destiny has not been without controversy! It is a subject that evokes widespread interest. Much writing and airtime have been given to its authenticity and its role as incorporated in the famous Westminster Abbey Chair of St Edward the Confessor (anachronistically called after The Confessor). There have been endless debates on the proper resting place for the Stone. It has influenced monarchs down the ages; been the centre-piece for the crowning of Scottish and English monarchs; referenced in Shakespeare’s Macbeth; been the subject of films such as ‘Stone of Destiny’ (2008) and featured most recently in the Oscar-winning ‘The King’s Speech’ (2010); and inspired numerous folk, classical and other genres of music: For examples: Steve McDonald’s ‘Stone of Destiny’ (2001); and John McLeod’s ‘Stone of Destiny’ (2003). McLeod’s was commissioned by Perth Symphony Orchestra and is a Symphonic Suite for orchestra in 4 movements: 1. Jacob’s pillow — the legend begins; 2. Odyssey — a journey through time; 3. Moot hill — ghosts of ancient kings; 4. Crown triumphant — a coronation march. For more details of the Stone’s history and significance, cf. R. Welander, D. Breeze and T. Clancy (eds), The Stone of Destiny: artefact & icon (Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Monograph series, 22, Edinburgh, 2003); and http://www.westminster-abbey.org last accessed 10 November 2020.

17 Exodus 2: 1–10 (KJV); ‘And Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took the stone that he had put for his pillows, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon the top of it. And he called the name of that place Bethel: but the name of that city was called Luz at the first. And Jacob vowed a vow, saying, “If God will be with me, and will keep me in this way that I go, and will give me bread to eat, and raiment to put on, So that I come again to my father’s house in peace; then shall the LORD be my God: And this stone, which I have set for a pillar, shall be God’s house: and of all that thou shalt give me I will surely give the tenth unto thee.”’ Genesis 28: 18-22 (KJV).

18 W. Rodwell et al., The Coronation Chair and Stone of Scone: History, Archaeology and Conservation (Oxford, 2013), pp. 23-6. Cf. Welander et al., Stone of Destiny, pp. 91-93.

19 W. Rodwell et al., The Coronation Chair, pp. 25-6.

20 S. T. Driscoll, ‘Picts and Prehistory: Cultural Resource Management in Early Medieval Scotland’, World Archaeology 30 (1998), pp. 142-58, at p. 152; D. H. Caldwell and G. Ewart, ‘Finlaggan and the Lordship of the Isles: An Archaeological Approach’, The Scottish Historical Review 72, (1993), pp. 146-66, at 149. The OED has it as a hill on which a moot or assembly is held, often an important meeting location in a town or village, and later the site for churches.

21 M. O. Anderson, ‘Nechtan mac Derile’, ODNB (2004–); cf. N. Evans, ‘Royal Succession and Kingship among the Picts’, The Innes Review 59 (2008), pp. 1–48; and Welander et al., Stone of Destiny, pp. 102-3, 145.

22 Bute, Scottish Coronations, p. 143. See also M. O. Anderson, ‘Kenneth I [Cináed mac Alpin, Kenneth Macalpine] king in Scotland, d. 858’, ODNB (2004–).

23 R. Holinshed et al., The Firste Volume … Chronicles of En[gland] … Scotlande, and Ire[land] … Faithfully gathered and set forth (London, 1571), pp. 301-2. See also, M. Brown, The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371 (Edinburgh, 2004), pp. 229-30; and Rodwell et al., The Coronation Chair, pp. 14-16; D. Broun, ‘Macbeth [Mac Bethad mac Findlaích] (d. 1057)’, ODNB (2004–); G. P. Stell, ‘John [John de Balliol] (c. 1248×50–1314), king of Scots’, ibid; M. Prestwich, ‘Edward I (1239–1307), king of England and lord of Ireland, and duke of Aquitaine’, ibid.

24 See on the legend of Fergus: H. Summerson, ‘Fergus I (c. 305BC)’, ibid — and sometimes referred to as Fergus [called Fergus Mór] (d. 501); D. Broun, ‘Malcolm I [Mael Coluim mac Domnaill] (d. 954), king in Scotland, ibid; ibid., ‘Dubh [Duff] [Dub mac Coluim] (d. 966), king in Scotland’, ibid; K. Stringer, ‘Alexander II (1198–1249), king of Scots’, ibid; M. H. Brown, ‘James I (1394–1437), king of Scots’, ibid; Bute, Scottish Coronations, p. 143; Chronicles of En[gland] … Scotlande, and Ire[land], p. 35.

25 Chronicles of En[gland] … Scotlande, and Ire[land], pp. 206, 281, 385. For a pictorial impression of such a coronation at Scone, cf. The Parker Library, Cambridge, MS 171, The Scotch Chronicle (fifteenth-century): ‘The Chronicle was written by John Fordoun with a continuation by Walter Bower (? Bowmakar), Abbot of Inchcolm. The illumination shows Alexander III crowned at Scone (1249). The king holds a massive sceptre and is supported by an upright sword. An old man salutes him as the descendant of Gathelos, King of Athens, and Scota, Pharaoh’s daughter.’ Cf. BL, Hargrave MS 497, fol. 4r–v (‘Scotland. Coronation of Alexander the third King of Scotland in the year 1249’); and National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh, Wodrow MSS. Quarto LXXXVI (James Balfour’s Annals), p. 5. See also A. Gibb, ‘The Coronation of James the First, King of Scotland, and Jane Beaufort, Queen of Scotland, His Wife, 21st May, 1424’, The Scottish Antiquary 17 (1902), pp. 1-8; and M. Brown, The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371 (Edinburgh, 2004), pp. 7-9.

26 Anon., A Proclamation [6 July 1603] Signifying the Kings Maiesties Pleasure, Touching the Resort of People to his Coronation (London, 1603); Cf. The Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington DC, MS X.c.20 (Matthew Hutton to his son, 18 July 1603), excusing his son’s attendance at the reduced coronation solemnities and suggesting that ‘verie few will go’ given plague. Cf. Kent Archives, Maidstone Branch, MS U951 C261/15; ibid., MS NR/CPh1/2 (Edward Kelke’s circular letter to Cinque Ports, 11–13 July 1603). Cf. ibid., MSS NR/CPh1/3 (Circular letter, 12 July 1603) and NR/CPh1/4 – which references the ‘sickness [in] London’. See also D. Cressy, Charles I and the People of England (Oxford, 2015), p. 66.

27 D. Starkey, Crown and Country: The Kings and Queens of England (London, 2010), p. 473. See also R. Strong, Coronation: A History of Kingship and the British Monarchy (London, 2005), p. 466; and M. Carter, The Three Emperors: Three Cousins, Three Empires and the Road to World War One (London, 2009), p. 275; G. W. Wollaston, Coronation of King Edward VII. The Court of Claims. Cases and Evidence … (London, [1903]), passim.

28 See P. Hopkins, ‘Francis Turner (1637–1700)’, ODNB (2004–). See also The London Gazette, 11–14 February 1688/9 (no. 2427). See also L. Schwoerer, ‘The Coronation of William and Mary, April 11, 1689’, in L. Schwoerer (ed.), The Revolution of 1688 1689: Changing Perspectives (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 107-30, at. pp. 107-11. For the proclamation declaring William and Mary joint rulers of Scotland, see Anon., A Proclamation [11 April 1689], Declaring William and Mary, King and Queen of England, to be King and Queen of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1689).

29 NRS, GD406/1/2508, fol.1r (William Kerr, third earl of Lothian, Perth, to William Hamilton, second duke of Hamilton, 16 December 1650). This was not the end of it, however, as details of further meetings at ‘perth [on] 16 decemb[e]r 1650’ dragged on, but one suspects this had more to do with the minutiae of the event and the Presbyterian rite, rather more than with the larger question of whether to crown or not to crown; and much was not actually settled till the day of the crowning itself, as concerns continued over the danger from the Cromwellian threat.

30 NRS, Minutes of Parliament, PA3/2, fol. 86r, cf. Brown, Records of the Parliaments of Scotland, M1650/11/34. See also NRS, PA7/23/2/76, fol. 1r (28 December 1650), draft coronation invitation or summons to the earl of Erroll, Great Constable, to attend the coronation on 1 January 1651.

31 Clarendon, vol. V, p. 172.

32 NRS, Records of the Episcopal Church of Scotland, CH12/12/1019, p. 1 ‘A copy of the form and order of the coronation of King Charles II (1651)’, p. 1. See also, ibid., Hay of Haystoun MSS, GD34/811/6, fol. 1r–v, documents relating to Gilbert, earl of Erroll’s role in the 1651 coronation, and imposed fine from Oliver Cromwell, 12 October 1654. For coronation processions see: Strong, Coronation, pp. 127, 133-6, 213-24.

33 http://www.edinburghcastle.gov.uk/index/tour/highlights/highlight-honours.htm last accessed 30 March 2020. By way of contrast with the English regalia, cf. M. Holmes and Major-General H. Sitwell, The English Regalia (London, 1972); C. Blair, (ed.), The Crown Jewels (London, 1998); and A. Keay, The Crown Jewels (London, 2011).

34 R. Hutton, Charles the Second: King of England, Scotland and Ireland (Oxford, 1989), p. 59. D. Scougall, ‘Campbell, Archibald, marquess of Argyll (1605/7–1661)’, ODNB (2004–); E. M. Furgol, ‘Montgomery [Montgomerie; formerly Seton], Alexander, sixth earl of Eglinton (1588–1661), ODNB (2004–); Sir P. Lely, ‘Leslie, John, duke of Rothes (c.1630–1681)’, ODNB (2004–); J. R. Young, ‘Lindsay, John, seventeenth earl of Crawford and first earl of Lindsay [known as earl of Crawford – Lindsay] (1596–1678)’, ODNB (2004–).

35 For illustrations cf. British Museum, London [hereafter BM], Charles II’s coronation as King of Scotland at Scone in 1651: Registration number: 1872,1012.1711. AN288457001; and RC750107 Charles II in Moot Hill Kirk crowned on ‘dais’ = stand. Cf. D. Stevenson, King or Covenant? Voices from Civil War (East Lothian, 1996), p. 188: Dutch print: Huych Allaerdt Exc. ‘The CORONATION OF CHARLES II’, 1651. According to Stevenson, this ‘Dutch print is the only known depiction of the coronation – unfortunately, as it is almost entirely imaginary’. However, as the two foregoing references indicate, it is quite clear that he is mistaken here and other prints do indeed exist.

36 NRS, CH12/12/1019, pp. 1–2. Cf. Edinburgh University Library, DC.5.71 (Revolutions in the Church of Scotland), pp. 42-3.

37 R. Douglas, The Form and Order of the Coronation of Charles the Second, King of Scotland, England, France, and Ireland. As it was Acted and Done at Schoone, the First Day of January, 1651. (Aberdeen, 1651), pp. 20-2.

38 Hutton, Charles the Second, p. 59.

39 Douglas, The form and order, pp. 23-4; cf. Bute, Scottish Coronations, p. 208.

40 Douglas, The Form and Order, pp. 24-5. Cf. K. Sharpe, Image Wars: Promoting Kings and Commonwealths in England, 1603–1660 (New Haven, Connecticut, and London, c. 2010), p. 441; cf. E. Hawkins, (comp.) and A. W. Franks, and H. A. Grueber (eds), Medallic Illustrations of the History of Great Britain and Ireland to the Death of George II (2 vols, London, 1885), vol. I, p. 394, no. 18 and plate XXXV, no. 8.

41 Cf. NRS, CH12/12/1019, p. 6: ‘Gold and Silver pieces struck … for this Solemnity’; and Stevenson, King or Covenant, p. 188 (Dutch print: Huych Allaerdt Exc. of ‘The CORONATION OF CHARLES II’, 1651. ‘On the right Charles sits on a dais … behind him money is thrown to the crowd in celebration.’).

42 See BL, MS Harley 41, fol. 12, for an illustrated plan of Anne Boleyn’s coronation banquet in Westminster Hall (1533). For more examples and discussions of the traditional feast, see: Strong, Coronation, pp. 173-5; J. J. Scarisbrick, Henry VIII (London, 1968), p. 18.

43 NRS, Earls of Morton Papers, GD150/2949 (extract from Royal household book).

44 Ibid., Exchequer Records: Household books, MS E31/19, fol. 32r–v.

45 Scone Palace, Perth [hereafter ScP], Vol. 1 fol. 24r.

46 Glamis Castle, Angus, Box 59/3/11. See also ibid., Box 59/5/23 (October 1651: retrospective discharge for the coronation and for ‘his lord[ships] maintenance’).

47 NRS, Exchequer Records: Taxation accounts, MS E67/2, fol. 5 r–v.

48 Ibid., MS E67/2, fol. 8r–v.

49 Ibid., MS E67/2, fol. 6r–v.

50 Ibid., MS E67/2, fol. 7r–v.

51 See below — What was unusual?

52 NRS, GD150/2949.

53 ScP, Bundle 268, fols 1r–3v (Such items were expensive, amounting to ‘149 sh[illings]’).

54 For further costs, see ibid., Vol. 1 nos 12-28 [fols 10r-22r].

55 Cf. Westminster Abbey Library, Westminster Abbey Muniments 51119 ‘Account of the Procession at the Coronation of King Edward VI’, 1547; BL, Add. MS 47184, fol. 6 for evidence of the acclamation in Charles I’s 1626 coronation: ‘the Archbyshopp … speaking to the people … the people signifying their willingness by answering all in one voyce yea yea God save King Charles’; and National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh, Keith Earl Marischal MS 21183, fols. 71r-72v for an account of Charles I’s 1633 Coronation, including fol. 72r ‘the people made there acclamat[io]n crying God Save the King’.

56 Bute, Scottish Coronations, p. 141. Bute points out that ‘the one other Presbyterian Coronation … [was] that of … Anne of Denmark, at Holyrood, May 17, 1590’: yet this was for a queen consort — the actual Sovereign was quite another matter altogether and unprecedented. Yet, both Anne of Denmark’s coronation in 1590 and that of James VI in 1567 included the ceremony of anointing. John Knox may have preached the coronation sermon in 1567, but the anointing of James VI separates it from that of Charles II’s 1651 Presbyterian service. See National Library of Scotland, Advocates’ MS 33.7.10, f. 15r-16r;Adv. MS 33.2.26, 32r-34v; NRS, GD 124/10/24; and A. L. Luhala, ‘The Household and Court of King James VI of Scotland, 1567–1603’ (unpublished PhD dissertation, Edinburgh, 2000), pp. 202-10. See also I. Bradley, God Save the Queen: The Spiritual Heart of the Monarchy (London, 2012), p. 97; M. F. Graham, ‘Kirk in Danger: Presbyterian Political Divinity in Two Eras’, in B. Heal and O. P. Grell (eds), The Impact of the European Reformation: Princes, Clergy and People (Aldershot, 2008), pp. 167-86, at p. 169; D. Stevenson, Scotland’s Last Royal Wedding: The Marriage of James VI and Anne of Denmark. With a Danish Account of the Marriage Translated by Peter Graves (Edinburgh, 1997), p. 99.

57 Douglas, The Form and Order, pp. 4-5.

58 The manuscript Liber Regalis (MS 38) (Latin composition) of c.1390. In the Later Middle Ages, the volume containing this rite was in the custody of Westminster Abbey, and the abbey Library still houses it, which is the classic version of the medieval text. The Liber Regalis sets out: the presentation of the monarch to the people, the Coronation Oath and anointing, the offering of the ornaments to the sovereign (including the sword, bracelets, mantle, ring and sceptre), the crowning and trumpet fanfare and, lastly, the mass. The Liber Regalis was extended into an all-encompassing order, entitled the ‘Little Device’, for Richard III’s coronation (1483), detailing not only the ritual, but also the events of the day before; the latter order provided the model for all coronations that have followed. See L. G. Wickham Legg (ed.), English Coronation Records ([London], 1901), pp. 81-131 (Liber Regalis), 219-40 (‘Little Device’).

59 Lee, ‘Inevitable’ Union, p. 217.

60 For James II see: Schwoerer, ‘The Coronation of William and Mary’, pp. 114-5; J. Callow, James II: The Triumph and the Tragedy (Kew, 2005), pp. 52-4. For the early twentieth-century debate surrounding Elizabeth I’s coronation see: C. G. Bayne, ‘The Coronation of Queen Elizabeth’, HER XXII (1907), pp. 650-73; H. A. Wilson, ‘The Coronation of Queen Elizabeth’, HER XXIII (1908), pp. 87-91; G. L. Ross, ‘Il Schifanoya’s Account of the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth’, HER XXIII (1908), pp. 533-4; C. G. Bayne, ‘The Coronation of Queen Elizabeth’, HER XXIV (1909), pp. 322-3; A. F. Pollard, ‘The Coronation of Queen Elizabeth’, HER XXV (1910), pp. 125-6; and C. G. Bayne, ‘The Coronation of Queen Elizabeth’, HER (1910), pp. 550-3. Many have argued that her coronation ‘anticipated her settlement of religion’ — D. Hoak, ‘The Coronations of Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I, and the Transformation of the Tudor Monarchy’, in C. S. Knighton and R. Mortimer (eds), Westminster Abbey Reformed 1540–1640 (Aldershot, 2003), pp. 114-51, at p. 138; R. Bowers, ‘The Chapel Royal, the First Edwardian Prayer Book, and Elizabeth’s Settlement of Religion, 1559’, Historical Journal 43 (2000), pp. 317-44, at p. 327, which cites the relevant literature of this famous controversy. Hoak maintains that Bowers follows the argument set out in W. P. Haugaard, ‘The Coronation of Elizabeth I’, JEH XIX (1968), pp. 161-70, which corrected earlier readings. Hoak is rightly critical of Starkey’s biography of Elizabeth, Elizabeth: Apprenticeship (London, 2000), which ignores Haugaard on this point, and relies largely on Bayne’s hugely debatable interpretation of 1907 i.e. Bayne, ‘Coronation’; BL, Egerton MS 3320, fol. 22r.

61 Hutton, Charles II, pp. 59-60. For more biographical details see: D. Stevenson, ‘Campbell, John, first earl of Loudoun (1598–1662)’, ODNB (2004–); D. Scougall, ‘Campbell, Archibald, marquess of Argyll (1605/7–1661)’, ODNB (2004–); E. M. Furgol, ‘Montgomery [Montgomerie; formerly Seton], Alexander, sixth earl of Eglinton (1588–1661), ODNB (2004–); Sir P. Lely, ‘Leslie, John, duke of Rothes (c.1630–1681)’, ODNB (2004–); J. R. Young, ‘Lindsay, John, seventeenth earl of Crawford and first earl of Lindsay [known as earl of Crawford – Lindsay] (1596–1678)’, ODNB (2004–).

62 Douglas, The form and order, pp. 11-13. In 1661 Charles would be anointed as per the traditional Liber Regalis, see Sir Edward Walker, A Circumstantial Account of the Preparations for the Coronation of His Majesty King Charles the Second, and a Minute Detail of that Splendid Ceremony, with all the Particulars Connected with it; Including the Installation of Knights, Creation of Peers, &c., to which is Prefixed, an Account of the Landing, Reception, and Journey of His Majesty from Dover to London (London, 1820), pp. 99-100. Walker’s ‘detailed account of the event in fifty-two manuscript folios dated 25 May 1661, [was] subsequently published in 1820’ — H. Chesshyre, ‘Walker, Sir Edward (1612–1677)’, ODNB (2004–). A copy of Walker’s account (dated 25 May 1661) of Charles II’s arrival at the Restoration and also of his 1661 coronation survives in BL, Add. MS 30195. Either that or another MS was used as the basis for Walker, Circumstantial Account. Further coronation material exists in other MSS associated with Walker: BL, Add. MS 37998, Hargrave MS 497 and Stowe MS 580; Bodl., Carte MS 129; and SAL, MS SAL/MS/455. See also Anon., The Manner of the Solemnity of the Coronation of his Most Sacred Majesty King Charles (London, 1660). The iconography of the consecration of a king is too extensive to discuss here, but for a spectacular example see the 9th century MS miscellany on the life of St Edmund: The Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, USA, MSM 736.

63 Lee, ‘Inevitable’ Union, pp. 217-8.

64 Hutton, Charles the Second, pp. 59-60. See also NRS, CH12/12/1019, p. 5; cf. Royal Collection, Windsor Castle, RCIN 750107 for depiction of the Scone coronation showing Charles being crowned by a figure, probably Argyll. It is a highly stylised engraving (probably Dutch, by Hugo Allart), with a Cloth of Estate and set in a form of temple — almost a biblical scene.

65 R. Douglas, Sermon Preached at Scoone, January 1st 1651, at the Coronation of Charles the Second (Edinburgh, 1651). As Moderator of the General Assembly, Douglas took the coronation sermon to be his due on this occasion.

66 Fraser, Charles II, pp. 98-9. Keay, Magnificent Monarch, pp. 46-7.

67 Cf. Edinburgh University Library, DC.5.30–31: Papers of Robert Douglas vol. 1-11, for other examples of his Sermons and of note his remarkable skill including in biblical reference. For 1661 see G. Morley, A Sermon [on Prov. XXVIII 2] Preached at the … Coronation of … Charles II, King of Great Britain, etc. (London, 1661); cf. D. J. Sturdy, ‘English Coronation Sermons in the Seventeenth Century’, in H. Duchhardt (ed.), Herrscherweihe und Königskrönung im Frühneuzeitlichen Europa (Wiesbaden, 1983), pp. 69-81, at pp. 69-70. See also D. Shaw, ‘The Coronation and Monarchical Culture in Stuart Britain and Ireland 1603–1661’ (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Cambridge, 2002). One must have caution when dealing with Shaw’s work on the Coronation Sermon of Douglas as he draws comparison with Cranmer’s Sermon for Edward VI’s Coronation on idolatry as a form of precedent. Yet as MacCulloch has revealed what is said to be Cranmer’s sermon never actually took place or rather the details of what we have are a forgery. Douglas’s Sermon was therefore a unique Presbyterian Sovereign’s Coronation Sermon for the British Isles without precedent; and if there is any comparison to be drawn with Cranmer it cannot be from a forged Sermon. Cf. D. MacCulloch, ‘Foxes, Firebrands and Forgery: Robert Ware’s pollution of Reformation history’, HJ 104 (2011), 307-46.

68 Correspondence of Sir Robert Kerr; first Earl of Ancram and his son William, third Earl of Lothian 1616, 2 vols (Edinburgh, 1875), vol. I, 93.

69 R. Douglas, The form and order of the coronation of Charles the Second, King of Scotland, England, France, and Ireland. As it was acted and done at Schoone, the first day of January, 1651. (Aberdeen, 1651), p. 7.

70 Brown, Records of the Parliaments of Scotland, M1650/11/8.

71 NRS, PA3/2, fol. 84r-v, cf. RPS, M1650/11/30. According to Penman the original (and any copies) have since been lost. See M. Penman, Robert the Bruce: King of the Scots (New Haven, Connecticut, 2014), pp. 266-95, at n. 16.

72 I. W. Archer, ‘City and Court Connected: The Material Dimensions of Royal Ceremonial, ca.1480–1625’, HLQ 71 (2008), pp. 157-79, at pp. 175-8 (for royal progress in the City of London); Sharpe, Image Wars, pp. 244-7 (Elizabeth I; James I & VI; Charles I); D. MacCulloch, Thomas Cranmer: A Life (New Haven, Connecticut, and London, 1996), pp. 138-9 (Henry VIII), pp. 517-8 (Edward VI).

73 Sharpe, Image Wars, p. 414, see A Declaration by the Kings Majesty to His Subjects of the Kingdomes of Scotland, England, and Ireland (Edinburgh, 1650).

74 BM, M.7336 (coronation medal, Charles II, 1651); Sharpe, Image Wars, p. 441; Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations, vol. I, p. 394, no. 18, plate XXXV, no. 8. For Charles I and the Garter, see R. Cust, ‘Charles I and the Order of the Garter’, Journal of British Studies 52 (2013), pp. 343-69.

75 BM, M.7336 (coronation medal, Charles II, 1651); Sharpe, Image Wars, p. 441; Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations, vol. I, p. 394, no. 18, plate XXXV, no. 8.

76 Sharpe, Image Wars, p. 441.

77 For publications see: Douglas, The form and order; ibid.,, The form and order of the coronation of Charles the II, King of Scotland together vvith the sermon then preached by Mr. Robert Dowglas &c, and the oath then taken with several speeches made : as it was acted at Scoone, the first day of January, 1651 (London, 1660); ibid., A phenix, or, The Solemn League and Covenant whereunto is annexed: 1. The form and manner of His Majesties coronation in Scotland, with a sermon then preached on that occasion, by Robert Douglas of Edenburgh, II. A declaration of the Kings Majesty to all his loving subjects of the Kingdoms of Scotland, &c. in the yeare 1650, III. …  (Edinburgh, 1662); ibid., The form and o[rder] of the coronation of Charles the Second, King of Scotland, England, France, and Ireland. As it was acted and done at Schoone, the first day of January, 1651 (Aberdeen and Edinburgh, 1700).

78 Douglas, The Form and Order, pp. 12-13.

79 Ibid., p. 12.

80 Brown, Records of the Parliaments of Scotland, A1650/5/120.

81 Douglas, The Form and Order, p. 41.

82 See G. Burgess, British Political Thought, 1500–1660: The Politics of the Post-Reformation (Basingstoke, 2009), pp. 367-72; T. Claydon, Europe and the Making of England, 1660–1760 (Cambridge, 2007); pp. 288-9; T. Harris, ‘Incompatible Revolutions?: The Established Church and the Revolutions of 1688–9 in Ireland, England and Scotland’, in A. I. Macinnes and J. Ohlmeyer (eds), The Stuart Kingdoms in the Seventeenth Century: Awkward Neighbours (Dublin, 2002), pp. 204-25; T. Harris, Restoration: Charles II and his Kingdoms, 1660–1685 (London, 2005), pp. 114-6; Harris, Revolution, pp. 21-2, 364-5; 408-9; J. Black, ‘Confessional State or Elect Nation? Religion and identity in eighteenth-century England’, in T. Claydon and I. McBride (eds), Protestantism and National Identity: Britain and Ireland, c.1650–c.1850 (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 53-74; D. Allan, ‘Protestantism, Presbyterianism and National Identity in Eighteenth-Century Scottish History’, ibid, pp. 182-205. For the impact on the Glorious Revolution see S. Sowerby, Making Toleration: The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2013), passim.

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Notes on contributors

George William Cullen Gross

George William Cullen Gross

Dr George Gross is a Visiting Research Fellow at King’s College London, where he completed his doctoral thesis entitled ‘“The Lord’s Anointed”: British Coronations in Religious, Political and Social Contexts, c.1661–c.1714’ in April 2017. He is a co-convener at ‘The Religious History of Britain, 1500–1800’ seminar held at the Institute of Historical Research in London. Recent publications include a co-edited book, D. J. Cranskhaw and G. W. C. Gross (eds), Reformation Reputations: The Power of the Individual in English Reformation History (Cham, 2020); and G. W. C. Gross, ‘Ivan IV and Elizabeth I: The Influence of the Tsar’s Matrimonial Endeavours on the Development of Russo-English Relations’, RUDN Journal of Russian History 4 (18) (2019), pp. 938-61. A co-authored book British Coronations and the Shaping of National Identity, c.973–1953 is forthcoming.