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ABSTRACT
Globalization associated with development in information and communication technologies ushered diasporas to play an important role in marketing the homeland culture globally. Among the many traditional Indian art forms that are getting visible transnationally today is the Theyyam. Theyyam is a traditional ritual art form of worship observed in the Kannur and Kasargod districts of Northern Kerala state in India. It is the folk God for North Malabaris which is accompanied by dance and other rituals. There are approximately four hundred varieties of Theyyams and several of them are performed in the diasporas. This article argues that when the Theyyam is performed transnationally, the true essence of the ritual art form changed compared to its performance in the original settings and thereby opens up for commodification. Ethnographic data for this study derives from in-depth interviews with Theyyam artists, informal conversations with Theyyam devotees and villagers besides observation of Theyyam performances.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. Jacobsen, South Asian Religions on Display: Religious Processions in South Asia and in the Diaspora, 9–10.
2. Pratap Kumar, Hinduism and the Diaspora: A South African Narrative, 208.
3. Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture, 70.
4. Sahoo & Sangha, “Diaspora and Cultural Heritage: The Case of Indians in Canada,” 81–94.
5. Kumar, “Dancing with Shakti: Bharatanatyam and Embodied Performativity within the South Asian Diaspora.”
6. Williams, Religions of Immigrants from India and Pakistan: new threads in the American tapestry, 11.
7. Ibid.
8. Baumann, “Templeisation: Continuity and Change in Hindu Traditions in Diaspora,” 149–79.
9. Safran, “Diaspora in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return,” 83–99.
10. Van Hear, New Diasporas: The Mass Exodus, Dispersal and Regrouping of Migrant Communities, 6.
11. Hutnyk, “Hybridity,” 79–102.
12. Bruneau, “Diasporas, Transnational Spaces, and Communities,” 123–39.
13. Vertovec, The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns, 17.
14. Sahoo, “Issues of Identity in the Indian Diaspora: A Transnational Perspective”, 81–98.
15. Radhakrishnan, “The Gulf in the Imagination: Migration, Malayalam Cinema, and Regional Identity,” 217–45.
16. Kavu is a small shrine of worship that belongs to a particular family, caste, or village.
17. David, “Local Diasporas/Global Trajectoria: New Aspects of Religious ‘Performance’ in British Tamil Hindu Practice,” 89–99.
18. See, Mannarakkal, “Theyyam: Patronage, Appropriation, and Interpolation.”
19. Beyer, Religion and Globalization, 9.
20. Olsson, “From Exile to Post-exile: the Diasporisation of Swedish Chileans in Historical Contexts,” 659–76.
21. For anonymity the respondent names were changed in this article.
22. Vishnumoorti along with other performances which are discussed in this article such as Karikuttichathan, Rakthachamundi, Kandanarkelan, Bairavan, Dhumabhagvathi, and Uchitta are all Theyyam miming that are based on characters derived from the myths of real men/women of North Malabar who fought for a cause and later worshipped as gods and goddesses.
23. Initial slow steps in Theyyam performance.
24. Narratives accompanied by songs related to the particular deity.
25. Solemnization and practicing of rituals and fasting with dedication and faith.
26. The last stage of Theyyam performance where the performer gives his blessings to the devotees.
27. Honorarium given in the form of fee, fruits or attire to show respect.
28. Maha Shivaratri is a Hindu festival dedicated to the worship of Lord Shiva and is celebrated widely in India as well as in the Indian diaspora.
29. Rama Navami is a Hindu festival which celebrates the birthday of Lord Rama.
30. Krishna Jayanti or Krishna Janmashtami is a Hindu festival to celebrate the birthday of Lord Krishna.
31. Deepavali, the festival of lights, is a major Indian festival.
32. See, Diesel, “Ritual and Drama in the Worship of the Goddess Draupadi,” 65–94.
33. Ibid., 94.
34. Kuruthola is a thin tender strands of palm leaves, and murikku is Indian coral tree.
35. Saree is a lengthy cloth draped by Indian women, and mundu is a white garment wrapped around the waist mostly by men in Kerala.
36. It is interesting to note that there are approximately four hundred varieties of Theyyams. Muthappan and Thiruappana are important among them. Each of these varieties differ in terms of their worshipping deities, performance costumes, performance timings, number of artist and their assistants involved and so on so forth.
37. Second stage of Theyyam performance after thudangal where the artist performs some rituals.
38. Elaborate elegant and heavy attire worn by the performer from head to toe.
39. The drummer and trumpet player of the musical troupe.
40. Guligan performances are considered as part of much larger Theyyam and they are worshipped as the Lord Shiva.
41. Pratap Kumar, Hinduism and the Diaspora: A South African Narrative, 58.
42. Mannarakkal, “Theyyam: Patronage, Appropriation, and Interpolation.”
43. Tarabout, “Malabar Gods, Nation Building and World Culture: On Perceptions of the Local and the Global,” 185–210.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Ajaya K. Sahoo
Dr. Ajaya K. Sahoo is an Associate Professor at the Centre for Study of Indian Diaspora, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India. His areas of teaching and research interests include international migration, South Asian diaspora, transnationalism, and religion. He is the Editor of South Asian Diaspora.
Surabhi K.
Ms. Surabhi K. is a Doctoral Candidate at the Centre for Study of Indian Diaspora, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India. Her Ph.D. thesis focuses on Indian Diaspora, Religion, and Identity.