Minorities and culture of learning: an anthropological study of the Muslim community in Telangana state in India

ABSTRACT

What are the factors hindering educational development among Muslims in India in general and the newly born Telangana state in particular, is the key sociological question confronting the educationists and policymakers? The current paper based on empirical study provides an anthropological perspective to understand a number of socio-cultural factors responsible for lower retention and higher dropout rates among Muslims in public schools across the class and gender lines. It highlights that with positive state interventions, the enrolment and retention levels of Muslim working-class children have increased enormously besides a significant improvement in the same among Muslim girls also. Thus the paper argues that a relaxation in school protocols facilitates Muslim children integrating the academic demands and socio-cultural obligations they deem necessary while addressing culturally sensitive issues in curriculum and pedagogic practices foster attitudinal changes together which contribute immensely to the educational advancement among them.

KEYWORDS:

• Muslims
• Telangana
• south India
• Urdu language
• curriculum
• schooling
• anthropological perspective

Acknowledgments

I am thankful to the Department of Sociology, MANUU, Hyderabad, for providing the institutional support. I am also extremely thankful to the reviewers for academic inputs which really helpful in sharpening the arguments.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest of financial or otherwise was reported by the author.

Notes

1. Government of India Report (2006) refers to the High Power Committee appointed by the government of India, New Delhi, to study the socio-economic and educational status of Muslims in the country. It is popularly known as Sachar Committee Report.

2. Ibid., 84.

3. See “Government of India Report of the Standing Committee of National Monitoring Committee forMinorities’ Education” (2013).

4. See Sharief, “Six Years After Sachar.”

5. See Ahmad, “Muslim Educational Backwardness,” 1457–65.

6. See Jayaram, “Ethnicity and Education,” 115–29.

7. See Kalam, “Conditioned Lives?” 843–45.

8. See Robinson, “Religion, Socio-economic Backwardness & Discrimination,” 194–200.

9. See Saberwal, “On the Making of Muslims in India Historically,” 237–66.

10. See Hasan, “Muslims in India,” 2467–478; and Habib, “In Search of Integration and Identity,” 82–9.

11. See Engineer, “Reservation for Muslims,” 3984–985; Krishnan, “Reservations for Muslims in India,” 60–65; and Shah, “Social Backwardness and Politics of Reservations,” 601–10.

12. See Nasreen, “Sociology and Muslims in India,” 1547–551; and Nasreen, “Sociology and Muslims in India,” 496–513.

13. See Anis, “Educational Backwardness of Muslims,” 2289–91.

14. See Farouqui, “Urdu Education in India,”782–85.

15. See Zakir, “Analysing Demand for Primary Education,” 137–47.

16. See Kamat, “Literacy and Education of Muslims,” 1031–3.

17. See Fancy and Nagaraju, “Ethnic Identity and Curriculum Construction,” 312–29.

18. See Alur and Rioux, “Empowerment and Political Social Action,” 137–87.

19. See Gibson, “John Uzo Ogbu (1939–2003),” 644–6.

20. See Durkheim, Education and Sociology.

21. See Kalam, “Conditioned Lives?” 845.

22. See Kimball, “Education and Developmental Change,” 71–100.

23. See Bhukya, “Between Tradition and Modernity,” 120–5.

24. The term Asaf Jahi refers to the title of the members of the Asaf Jahi dynasty, the Muslim rulerswho established independent rule after Mughals over the Golconda kingdom comprising present-dayTelangana/Hyderabad region. Since the first ruler of this dynasty had assumed the title of Nizam UlMulk which later was termed as Nizam, the rulers belong to the dynasty ruling the state from 1713 to1950 are referred as Nizams. This dynasty ruled the region/state until it was merged with theindependent Indian union on 17 September 1948.

25. Qutub Shahis refers to the members of the Qutub Shahi dynasty, the Muslim rulers who were thefounders of the Golconda kingdom comprising the present day Telangana/Hyderabad region, who successively ruled the region until 1687.

26. See Manger, “Hadramis in Hyderabad,” 405–33.

27. See note 23 above.

28. The State of Andhra Pradesh was formed in 1956 on linguistic basis merging Telugu-speaking areas ofTelangana region under the former Nizam state of Hyderabad and the same from Andhra region whichwas a part of Madras Presidency under British rule, formerly. After this, the state witnessed adominance of Andhra people in Telangana in social, political, economic, and cultural matters causingnegligence of other regions. This subsequently contributed to raising dissidence in Telangana regionsowing seeds for the demand for a separate Telangana state. It slowly turned into a severe agitationowing to which a separate state of Telangana was conceded in 2014 by the government of Indiacarving it out from the areas comprising former Telangana region those were merged into AndhraPradesh state in 1956.

29. See Bhukya, “Between Tradition and Modernity,” 123.

30. For more details see “Telangana State Portal,” online.

31. See Khalidi, “Indian Muslim Society and Economy,” 177–202.

32. Ibid., 182.

33. See Basant, “Social, Economic and Educational Conditions of Indian Muslims,” 828–832, 829.

34. Sehri’ or ‘Suhoor’ is the pre-dawn meal eaten before the Fajr (morning prayer – the first of the five daily prayers) and is taken before sunrise as a blessing during Ramadan. The day starts at the crack of dawn with a meal called ‘Sehri’ or ‘Suhoor’. Other than this, the people are abstaining from consuming any type of food, liquid, or solid including water, until breaking the fast after sunset.

35. Iftar is one of the religious observances of Ramadan with which Muslims end their day’s fasting at the time of sunset and is often done as a community, with the family and other community members gathering to break their fast together. After Sehri meal, this is the second meal of the day. Traditionally dates and other fruits are eaten to break the fast, in emulation of the Islamic Prophet, Muhammad, who broke his fast in this manner.

36. Tarawih refers to additional ritual prayers performed by Muslims at night during Ramadan, following usual night time (Isha) prayers. It takes about an hour every day. Unlike the daily ritual prayers, the Tarawih is prayed as a mark of Sunnah observing the words and deeds of Prophet Muhammad, beginning from the first Moon-sighted evening marking the beginning of Ramadan month until second Moon-sighted (last day of Ramadan). This prayer is performed in the congregation led by Imam, aloud, unlike it is done in the other eleven months. Sunni Muslims believe it customary to attempt a takmil (complete recitation of the Holy Quran) as one of the religious observances during Ramadan by reciting one juz (one of thirty parts of Quran) per night in Tarawih.

37. In the Indian context, though the word Maulvi or Maulbi is associated with formal qualification following study at a madrasa or Darul Uloom, it is usually used as a more general title for religious figures and those who can teach Quranic teachings in Arabic. Whereas Moulima is the feminine word for the Maulvi or Maulbi.

38. huquq is a Urdu word, meaning Rights.

39. See Suneetha, “Between Haquq and Taaleem,” 57–63, 62.

40. The Zuhr is the second of the five daily obligatory prayers for practicing Muslims which is observedafter the sun reaches its zenith thus prayed usually in the afternoon at the time of lunch.

41. The book Seerat Un Nabi is a complete book about the life history, events, wars, virtues, and prayers of the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad. The Urdu version of it is written by Shibli Nomani and his student, Sulaiman Nadvi in 6 volumes, is popular among Urdu population.

42. See Fehmi, “The Multicultural Deficit and Emancipation of Indian Muslim Women,” 523–34.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

P. H. Mohammad

P. H. Mohammad is a Professor at the Department of Sociology, Maulana Azad National Urdu University (MANUU) in Hyderabad, Telangana State, India. He obtained his Ph.D., M.Phil., and M.A. degrees in Social Anthropology from the University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India. His areas of academic interest are; Anthropology of Exclusion, Sociology of Minorities, Sociology of Education and Sociology of Entrepreneurship.