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Notes
1. I wish to acknowledge the support of the following Institutions: CONACYT (proyecto H-37696), DGAPA-UNAM, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (Berlin), Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia (Madrid), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. The following persons have contributed considerably to the improvement of this work: Miruna Achim, Frida Gorbach, Laura Cházaro, Edna Suárez, Tobias Cheung, Laura Otis, Skúli Sigurdsson, and Roger Gathman. Previous versions of this paper have been presented in seminars at Posgrado en Filosofía de la Ciencia (Seminario de Historia de la Ciencia, UNAM), Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (Abteilung III), H&PS Department, University of Cambridge (UK). I have profited much from criticism and discussions in all three.
2. See CitationGerbi, La naturaleza and La disputa; CitationO'Gorman; Hanke; Cañizares How to Write and “New World.”
3. The notion of “ingenio” refers to mental capacities and dispositions which would include basic intelligence and sharpness of mind.
4. As has repeatedly been shown by authors like CitationGerbi, La disputa; CitationAnderson; and Brading.
5. Peter, or Petrus Camper (May 11, 1722 in Leydon – April 7, 1789 in The Hague) was a Dutch anatomist and a naturalist, as well as an artist and a patron of art. He also was a member of the state council of the Dutch Republic. One of the first to interest himself to comparative anatomy and paleontology, he also invented the measure of the “facial angle,” aimed at measuring the intelligence of animals and human beings in an attempt to “scientifically” demostrate racist theories.
6. Which he identifies with the unruly, regressive salta-atrás.
7. There are comparable studies dealing with in the French and Portuguese colonies, from which we can extract some general attitudinal patterns towards racial mixing in the Americas. See for instance Benoist and Bonniol.
8. I use the term white only to refer to skin coloring, without the racial connotation it came to have in the nineteenth century. As I will make clear below, I agree with authors such as CitationKonetzke, and, recently, Ruth Hill, who argue that superposing the modern notion of race on the Spanish American colonial discourse leads to conceptual confusion, and that the source of the hierarchical status allotted to color came from older social and religious values. I will for the same reason use quotation marks when using “race” and “racial” as anachronistic, but sometimes useful descriptive terms.
9. In a more drastic case, in Saint Domingue, Moreau de Saint-Méry (1797) describes an “infinite ligne de couleur” that prevents black tainted families from ever diluting the stain and becoming white (see CitationBonniol and Benoist).
10. Although important progress in that direction can be found in recent work by CitationVinson III and Hill.
11. Policing illegal activities, tax collecting, and army recruiting were among the main purposes. Originally, the native indios lived under a very different political and tax regime and were entitled to their territories and relative autonomy (in their Repúblicas de Indios), and had to pay collective tributes. Creoles and mestizos were free men (within the “ruly” side) and had increasingly diffuse boundaries, of which skin color was only one element. Freed African slaves and their mixed progeny with both Indians and Spaniards, who could, according to the social and regional conditions, be well or badly integrated to mainstream economical activities (as artisans, servants, laborers, etc.), constituted the most unruly sector.
12. See also Hill, ch. 5, and CitationSicroff.
13. From the 1977 edition of Huarte (IV in the 1594 edition). All translations from Spanish are by the author, unless otherwise stated.
14. Jews figure largely in this literature as an example of how complexion varies with the regions, given that they have changed and adapted themselves to many places without interbreeding with local groups, due to their endogamic practices.
15. For the notion of the “non-naturals” see CitationLópez-Beltrán, 2002. This rootedness, or tenacity of the accidental, its capacity to use the seed as vehicle to remain in a lineage and project itself into the future, is the germ of the modern concept of heredity, as I have argued elsewhere in several places. See CitationLópez-Beltrán, El sesgo, ch. 3.
16. Quoted from http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3113/dunbar/dunbar13.txt
17. The name is found with many variations and spellings, indicating a non-Spanish origin; possibly he was identical to one Heinrich Martín, born in Hamburg c. 1555.
18. Chapetones and gachupines are the two most widespread Iberoamerican colloquialisms for peninsular Spaniards.
19. “como no tengan mezcla de la tierra”: this sentence is enormously telling, as having red cheeks (chapetas) came to be a sign of blood purity, just as darker skin or absence of chapetas became a sign of mixture. Hence the nickname “chapetones.” The fact can be clearly observed in the reddening one sees of the cheeks of most unmixed Spaniards in the casta paintings.
20. A pattern that changes in both the English and the French colonies in the Caribbean and in Portugese Brazil, where mixtures in which the African presence was central produced similar racial schemes.
21. Particularly in Haiti and Santo Domingo. See Bonniol and Benoist Citation1994.
