Discomfort: an assessment and a model

Abstract

Interaction with and dependency on intelligent autonomous systems, may bring about feelings such as discomfort or fear. Users’ willingness to accept new technologies can be hampered by unwanted emotions like discomfort, making the study of the onset of discomfort essential for future technology design and implementation. Interest in discomfort has been growing but agreed-upon definitions or models are still wanted. Here, we present a theoretical model of discomfort predicated upon existing models and definitions. Our model emphasizes internal mental processes that guide the formation of discomfort. Specifically, we specify how environmental stimuli are linked to personal needs and expectations, and how that gap between internal and external factors contributes to discomfort. We conclude with a practical example of how our model can apply to the design of autonomous vehicles.

Keywords:

• Comfort
• discomfort
• theoretical model
• autonomous vehicles

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

1 A similar claim is offered by Ahmadpour, Robert, and Lindgaard (2016) who suggested that findings such as Helander and Zhang’s (1997) were due to the specific domain in which these studies were performed (sitting).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by General Motors (GM Advanced Technical Center) Inc. under Grant (GAC 2406).

Notes on contributors

Guy Cohen-Lazry

Guy Cohen-Lazry: Research interest are in the area of human-automation interaction with emphasis on the subjective experience of passengers in autonomous vehicles, and how this experience is affected by external as well as internal (intellectual, emotional) factors. Mr. Cohen-Lazry received his M.Sc. in human factors from Ben-Gurion University in 2018, and is now pursuing his Ph.D. in human factors in the Department of Industrial Engineering and Management at Ben-Gurion University. His research is conducted in collaboration with General Motors’ R&D Center in Israel.

Asaf Degani

Asaf Degani is a Technical Fellow at General Motors R&D. His research focus is on the analysis and design of human-machine interaction with special emphasis on autonomy. He supports several major projects at GM concerning automated vehicles and leads research work on the implications of this technology with respect to the public space, public acceptance, and robot ethics.

Tal Oron-Gilad

Tal Oron-Gilad is a full professor in the Department of Industrial Engineering and Management at Ben-Gurion University and the George Shrut Chair of human performance. Tal’s research expertise is in human factors engineering, human-autonomy interaction, and decision support systems for command and control. As systems become smarter and more autonomous, the challenge of designing the interaction increases, and more emphasis is required on mutual understanding and shared communication. Tal is the author of numerous articles and conference presentations and has supervised many graduate students. She is a member of several EU projects and initiatives (SOCRATES, MEDIATOR and RESIST).

P. A. Hancock

P. A. Hancock is Provost Distinguished Research Professor in the Department of Psychology and the Institute for Simulation and Training at the University of Central Florida in Orlando, Florida. His interests concern human interaction with all forms of technology and a detailed study of time. He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Illinois in 1983. He was President of HFES in 2000 and is its current President again in 2020-2021. He is only the second individual to have been elected twice to this office.