Ethnic Enclavisation and State Formation In Kosovo

Abstract

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Grant Garstka, Mary Robinson, and Ed Arnone for sharing their insights and findings on Kosovo.

Notes

1. T. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge (New Haven: Yale University Press 2000); Independent International Commission on Kosovo, The Kosovo Report: Conflict, International Response, Lessons Learned (New York: Oxford University Press 2000); Human Rights Watch, Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo (New York: Human Rights Watch 2001).

2. Serb communities were not the only ones to disregard aspects of UNMIK; A. Gheciu, ‘International Norms, Power and the Politics of International Administration: The Kosovo Case’, Geopolitics 10/1 (2005); B. Reka, UNMIK as International Governance in Post-War Kosova: NATO's Intervention, UN Administration and Kosovar Aspirations (Skopje: Logos-A 2003).

3. ESI, ‘The Lausanne Principle: Multiethnicity, Territory, and the Future of Kosovo Serbs’ (Pristina/Berlin: European Stability Initiative 2004).

4. Special Envoy of the Secretary-General on Kosovo's future status, ‘Report of the Special Envoy of the Secretary-General on Kosovo's Future Status, S/2007/168’ (New York: United Nations Security Council 2007); Special Envoy of the Secretary-General on Kosovo's Future Status, ‘Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement, S/2007/168 Add. 1’ (New York: United Nations Security Council 2007).

5. L. Bialasiewicz et al., ‘Interventions in the New Political Geographies of the European ‘Neighborhood’ ’, Political Geography 28/2 (2009) pp. 81–82.

6. Special Envoy of the Secretary-General on Kosovo's Future Status, ‘Report of the Special Envoy’ (note 4) p. 2.

7. We use the terms exclave or exclavity to denote disconnection from the mainland and enclave or enclavity as isolation from the surrounding state. It is important to note that enclavity may exist without exclavity.

8. J. Bugajski, ‘Balkan in Dependence?’, The Washington Quarterly 23/4 (2000).

9. S. Deets, ‘Reimagining the Boundaries of the Nation: Politics and the Development of Ideas on Minority Rights’, East European Politics and Societies 20/3 (2006).

10. These figures are found in the OSCE Municipal Reports for 2009, e.g., OSCE, ‘Municipal Profile: Prishtinë/Priština’ (Prishtina: OSCE 2008).

11. H. Catudal, The Exclave Problem of Western Europe (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press 1979); G. W. S. Robinson, ‘West Berlin: The Geography of an Exclave’, Geographical Review 43/4 (1953).

12. Robinson, ‘West Berlin’ (note 11) p. 540.

13. Cf. G. Ó Tuathail and C. Dahlman, ‘The Clash of Governmentalities: Displacement and Return in Bosnia-Herzegovina.’, in W. Walter and W. Larner (eds.), Global Governmentalities: Governing International Spaces (London: Routledge 2004).

14. E. Vinokurov, A Theory of Enclaves (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2007) pp. 91–92.

15. G. W. S. Robinson, ‘Exclaves’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 49/3 (1959).

16. Ibid., p. 283. This is not to conclude that formal classification is without merit since there are other possible outcomes for enclaves in formation, each bearing witness to particular political circumstances, see Vinokurov (note 14).

17. J. A. Agnew, ‘Mapping Political Power Beyond the State: Territory, Identity, and Movement in World Politics’, Millennium-Journal of International Studies 28/3 (1999).

18. A. Murphy, ‘National Claims to Territory in the Modern State System: Geographical Considerations’, Geopolitics 7/2 (2002).

19. B. O'Leary, ‘Analysing Partition: Definition, Classification and Explanation’, Political Geography 26/8 (2007).

20. J. A. Agnew, ‘Sovereignty Regimes: Territoriality and State Authority in Contemporary World Politics’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 95/2 (2005).

21. A. Herod, G. Ó Tuathail, and S. M. Roberts, ‘Negotiating Unruly Problematics’, in A. Herod, G. Ó Tuathail, and S. M. Roberts (eds.), An Unruly World?: Globalization, Governance, and Geography (New York: Routledge 1998).

22. G. Agamben, Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life (Stanford: Stanford University Press 1995).

23. Ó Tuathail and Dahlman, ‘The Clash of Governmentalities’ (note 13).

24. Our account draws from constructivist accounts of ethnic conflict; R. Brubaker, Ethnicity without Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2004); R. Brubaker and D. D. Laitin, ‘Ethnic and Nationalist Violence’, Annual Review of Sociology 24/1 (1998).

25. L. J. Cohen and J. Dragović-Soso, State Collapse in South-Eastern Europe: New Perspectives on Yugoslavia's Disintegration (West Lafayette: Purdue University Press 2007).

26. Murphy (note 18).

27. Brubaker, Ethnicity without Groups (note 24) pp. 132–146; P. J. Geary, The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 2002).

28. Brubaker provides a valuable framework for approaching such questions in Brubaker, Ethnicity without Groups (note 24) pp. 132–146.

29. R. Zariski, ‘Ethnic Extremism among Ethnoterritorial Minorities in Western Europe: Dimensions, Causes, and Institutional Responses’, Comparative Politics 21/3 (1989); R. Brubaker, ‘Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account’, Theory and Society 23/1 (1994).

30. Brubaker, Ethnicity without Groups (note 24) p. 8.

31. Ibid., p. 9.

32. O. Yiftachel and A. a. Ghanem, ‘Understanding ‘Ethnocratic’ Regimes: The Politics of Seizing Contested Territories’, Political Geography 23/6 (2004) p. 650.

33. Since 2005, the group Lëvizja VETËVENDOSJE! (Movement for Self-Determination!) has protested against anything less than complete independence for Kosovo, including a dramatic campaign of ubiquitous graffiti that reads “Jo Negociata – Vetëvendosje!” (No Negotiation – Self-Determination!), beginning on the walls around UNMIK headquarters.

34. Yiftachel and Ghanem (note 32) p. 650.

35. H. Brunborg, ‘Report on the Size and Ethnic Composition of the Population of Kosovo’ (The Hague: ICTY 2002); N. Malcolm, Kosovo: A Short History (New York: HarperPerennial 1999).

36. Figures for 1991 include estimates made by Yugoslavia's Federal Statistical Office of the Albanian population, which largely boycotted the census. For a discussion of estimate methodology and other estimates, see Brunborg (note 35). Summary statistics are reproduced in J. Mertus, Kosovo: How Myths and Truths Started a War (Berkeley: University of California Press 1999) pp. 313–316.

37. Brunborg (note 35) p. 12.

38. R. Hodson, D. Sekulic, and G. Massey, ‘National Tolerance in the Former Yugoslavia’, American Journal of Sociology 99/6 (1994).

39. A significant amount of agricultural land was taken by the state, especially from expelled Germans, in the decade after World War II. Its redistribution encouraged migration and resettlement.

40. Malcolm (note 35) p. 323.

41. G. Massey, R. Hodson, and D. Sekulic, ‘Ethnic Enclaves and Intolerance: The Case of Yugoslavia’, Social Forces 78/2 (1999).

42. S. Mrdjen, ‘Les Mariages Inter-Ethniques En Ex-Yougoslavie’ (Thessaly: University of Thessaly 2000).

43. S. Schwander-Sievers and G. Duijzings, ‘War within a War: Historical and Cultural Anthropological Background Report’ (The Hague: ICTY 2004); R. Elsie (ed.) Gathering Coulds: The Roots of Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo and Macedonia (Pejë: Dukagjini Publishing House 2002).

44. Malcolm (note 35) pp. 196–197.

45. Schwander-Sievers and Duijzings (note 43). On biopolitics and classifications see S. Jansen, ‘National Numbers in Context: Maps and Stats in Representations of the Post-Yugoslav Wars’, Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power 12/1 (2005); S. Legg, ‘Foucault's Population Geographies: Classifications, Biopolitics and Governmental Spaces’, Population, Space and Place 11/3 (2005).

46. Mertus (note 36) pp. 108–111.

47. M. Macura, ‘Preface’, in R. Petrovic, and M. Blagojevic (eds.), The Migration of Serbs and Montenegrins from Kosovo and Metohija: Results of the Survey Conducted in 1985–1986 (Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Department of Social Sciences 1992).

48. F. Bieber, ‘Nationalist Mobilization and Stories of Serb Suffering: The Kosovo Myth from 600th Anniversary to the Present’, Rethinking History 6/1 (2002).

49. E. D. Gordy, The Culture of Power in Serbia: Nationalism and the Destruction of Alternatives (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press 1999); Malcolm (note 35).

50. See the annual reports of the Ombudsperson in Kosovo to the Assembly of Kosovo, especially Ombudsperson Institution, ‘Eighth Annual Report, 2007–2008, Addressed to the Assembly of Kosovo’ (Prishtina: Republic of Kosovo 2008).

51. Vinokurov (note 14) p. 92.

52. B. O'Leary, ‘The Elements of Right-Sizing and Right-Peopling the State’, in B. O'Leary, I. Lustick, and T. M. Callaghy (eds.), Right-Sizing the State: The Politics of Moving Borders (New York: Oxford University Press 2001); C. Johnson, ‘Partitioning to Peace: Sovereignty, Demography, and Ethnic Civil Wars’, International Security 32/4 (2008); Vinokurov (note 14).

53. A. Pellet, ‘The Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee: A Second Breath for the Self-Determination of Peoples’, European Journal of International Law 3/1 (1992).

54. The municipal form was not a Yugoslav invention but borrowed from imperial administration, Z. Sević, ‘Local Government in Yugoslavia’, in E. Kandeva (ed.), Stabilization of Local Governments (Budapest: Open Society Institute 2001).

55. Cf. N. Andjelić, Bosnia-Herzegovina: The End of the Legacy (Portland: Frank Cass 2003) pp. 111–132.

56. D. Campbell, ‘Apartheid Cartography: The Political Anthropology and Spatial Effects of International Diplomacy in Bosnia’, Political Geography 18/4 (1999); Jansen (note 45).

57. M. Klemenčić, ‘Territorial Proposals for the Settlement of the War in Bosnia-Hercegovina’, Boundary and Territory Briefing 1/3 (1994); SDS BiH, ‘Instructions for the Organisation and Activity of the Organs of the Serbian People in Bosnia and Herzegovina in Extraordinary Circumstances’ (Sarajevo: SDS Main Board 1991).

58. A demographic expert testified at the ICTY to the Serb majority, Brunborg (note 35). The Albanian majority is listed in Federal Bureau for Statistics, ‘Preliminary Results of the 1991 Census on Population, Households, Housing, and Agricultural Holdings; Ethnic Composition of Population by Municipality’ (Belgrade: Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia 1992).

59. Two distinctions are being made here, the first between Yugoslavia's constitutional nations (narod), whose homelands are within Yugoslavia, and its political minority nationalities (narodnost), whose ‘homelands’ lie outside. This refers to Serbs and Albanians, respectively. The second distinction is a statistical one between the Kosovo's majority Albanians and the far smaller number of Serbs.

60. G. W. White, ‘Place and Its Role in Serbian Identity’, in D. Hall and D. Danta (eds.), Reconstructing the Balkans: A Geography of the New Southeast Europe (New York: John Wiley and Sons 1996).

61. Cf. M. Benvenisti, Sacred Landscape: The Buried History of the Holy Land since 1948 (Berkeley: University of California Press 2000).

62. The Voice of Kosovo and Metohia, Crucified Kosovo: Destroyed and Desecrated Serbian Orthodox Churches in Kosovo and Metohia (June–October 1999) (Belgrade: Serbian Orthodox Church 1999) p. 8.

63. D. T. Batakovic, ‘Kosovo and Metohija: A Historical Survey’, in R. Petrovic and M. Blagojevic (eds.), The Migration of Serbs and Montenegrins from Kosovo and Metohija: Results of the Survey Conducted in 1985–1986 (Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Department of Social Sciences 1992). This analogy also forms the basis of scholarly analysis on Kosovo and occupied territories, R. James, Frontiers and Ghettos: State Violence in Serbia and Israel (Berkeley: University of California Press 2003).

64. S. Burke, ‘Decentralization and Human Security in Kosovo: Prospects for Local Government Reform for Promoting Democracy, Development, and Conflict Mitigation’, (Medford, MA: Tufts University 2005).

65. The ‘Civiletti Report’ was requested by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, Decentralisation Mission in Kosovo, ‘Reform of Local Self-Government and Public Administration in Kosovo, Final Recommendation’ (Prishtina: Council of Europe 2003).

66. Ibid. See also Council of Europe, ‘European Charter on Local Self-Government’ (Strasbourg: Council of Europe 1985).

67. Special Representative of the Secretary-General, ‘Administrative Direction No. 2005/11 on Pilor Projects, Implementing UNMIK Regulation No. 2000/45 on Self-Government of Municipalities in Kosovo’ (Prishtina: United Nations Mission in Kosovo 2005).

68. B. Pula, ‘The Emergence of the Kosovo “Parallel State,” 1988–1992’, Nationalities Papers 32/4 (2004).

69. Department of Human Rights Decentralization and Communities, ‘Parallel Structures in Kosovo, 2006–2007’ (Prishtina: OSCE Mission in Kosovo 2007) pp. 15–24.

70. Ibid., pp. 28–32.

71. Ibid., pp. 32–42.

72. Department of Human Rights and Communities, ‘Kosovo Non-Majority Communities within the Primary and Secondary Educational Systems’ (Pristina: OSCE Mission in Kosovo 2009) p. 4.

73. Ibid., p. 15.

74. Department of Human Rights Decentralization and Communities (note 69) pp. 43–45.

75. J. D. Bloom, I. Hoxha, D. Sambunjak, and E. Sondorp, ‘Ethnic Segregation in Kosovo's Post-War Health Care System’, European Journal of Public Health 17/5 (2006).

76. Department of Human Rights Decentralization and Communities (note 69) pp. 25–26.

77. I. King and W. Mason, Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 2006).

78. A. Özerdem, ‘Lessons Learned from the Reintegration of Former Kosovo Liberation Army Combatants’, Development in Practice 14/3 (2004). It is worth noting that the insignia of the KLA serves as the basis for the KPC insignia but with the new name and an outline of Kosovo in place of the Albanian double-headed eagle.

79. Republička Izborna Komisija, ‘Izbori za Predsednika Republike Ponovljeno Glasanje Održani 3, Februara 2008, Godine (Drugi Krug)’ (Beograd: Republika Srbija 2008).

80. Republička Izborna Komisija, ‘Izbori za Narodne Poslanike U Narodnu Skupštinu Republike Srbije Održani 11, Maja 2008, Godine’ (Beograd: Republika Srbija 2008).

81. ‘Declaration on Establishing the Assembly of the Community of Municipalities of the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija’ (Kosovska Mitrovica: Assembly of the Community of Municipalities of the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija 2008).

82. ‘Serb Municipalities Favor Boycott of Elections’, B-92, 26 June 2009.

83. A. Jeffrey, ‘Building State Capacity in Post-Conflict Bosnia and Herzegovina: The Case of Brcko District’, Political Geography 25/2 (2006); F. Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 2004); R. Caplan, ‘A New Trusteeship? The International Administration of War-Torn Territories’ (New York: Oxford University Press 2002).

84. Vinokurov (note 14) pp. 205–212.

85. UNDP, ‘Kosovo Mosaic: Public Services and Local Authorities in Focus’ (Prishtina: United Nations Development Programme 2009).

86. Compare the effort to restore a multiethnic Bosnia via returns and property rights, G. Ó Tuathail and C. Dahlman, ‘The Effort to Reverse Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia-Herzegovina: The Limits of Returns’, Eurasian Geography and Economics 45/6 (2004).

87. Johnson (note 52).

88. UNDP-Kosovo, ‘Early Warning Report 24’ (Prishtina: United Nations Development Programme 2009).

89. European Commission, ‘Kosovo under UNSCR 1244/99 2009 Progress Report’ (Brussels: European Union 2009).

90. M. A. Vachudova, Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage, and Integration after Communism (New York: Oxford University Press 2005) pp. 250–254.

91. T. Diez, S. Stetter, and M. Albert, ‘The European Union and Border Conflicts: The Transformative Power of Integration’, International Organization 60/3 (2006).

92. J. O'Loughlin and V. Kolossov, ‘Still Not Worth the Bones of a Single Pomeranian Grenadier: The Geopolitics of the Kosovo War 1999’, Political Geography 21/5 (2002) p. 596.

93. Russia did not intercede.

94. Bialasiewicz et al. (note 5).

95. M. A. Hoare, ‘Bosnia: Weighing the Options’, BH Dani, 9 Oct. 2009. A careful study of what Kosovo's independence means in other contexts is provided by E. Berg, ‘Re-Examining Sovereignty Claims in Changing Territorialities: Reflections from ‘Kosovo Syndrome’ ’, Geopolitics 14/2 (2009).