Invasion games in war‐torn nations: can football help to build peace?

Abstract

Interpersonal violence such as terrorism, civil war and transnational conflict pose a significant threat to peace in many contemporary societies. Such hostilities frequently produce humanitarian crises that encourage the international community to engage in ‘humanitarian intervention’ in an effort to stabilize/restore social order. This article examines the applicability of football as a tool to promote peace‐building in post‐conflict communities. As a consequence of its simplicity and global popularity, a number of non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) have noted the suitability of football as a mechanism to help build peace and promote social development in post‐conflict societies. They regard football as a means of encouraging otherwise segregated groups to congregate in shared space to partake in a collective sporting experience – and see this as a positive thing to do. Consequently, this article examines a football‐based NGO programme conducted in Liberia and, by way of exploring the applicability of football as a tool for peace promotion, a series of philosophical questions about football are raised. For example, because football is an invasion game based upon the principles of attack and defence, key warfare concepts may be played out and reinforced rather than mitigated. The article concludes that whilst some excellent work is undertaken by NGOs, more in‐depth research is required to understand the impact of a project upon a society or individuals who promoted the use of football for peace‐building.

Notes

1. Schirch, The Little Book of Strategic Peacebuilding.

2. Katano, ‘Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding’, 351.

3. Lederach, Building Peace, Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies, 18.

4. Dolnik and Gunaratna, ‘On the Nature of Religious Terrorism’.

5. Ibid.

6. Ibid.

7. Laqueur, The New Terrorism, Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction; Hoffman, Holy Terror, The Implications of Terrorism Motivated by a Religious Imperative.

8. Whaite, ‘NGOs, Disasters and Advocacy’.

9. Dolnik and Gunaratna, ‘On the Nature of Religious Terrorism’.

10. Hehir, ‘Intervention, from Theories to Cases’.

11. Katano, ‘Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding’.

12. Korten, NGO Strategic Networks, From Community Projects to Global Transformation.

13. Roberts and Kingsbury, United Nations, Divided World, 475.

14. Donnelly, ‘Subcultures in Sport, Resilience and Transformation’.

15. Riak, ‘The Local Capacities for Peace Project, the Sudan Experience’.

16. Schirch, The Little Book of Strategic Peacebuilding.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

19. Machel, The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children.

20. Wessells, ‘Community Reconciliation and Post‐conflict Reconstruction for Peace’, 349.

21. Brett and Specht, Young Soldiers, Why They Chose to Fight.

22. Wessells, Child Soldiers.

23. Newman, ‘Protection Through Participation’, 19.

24. Sommers, ‘Urbanization, War and Africa's Youth at Risk’, 1.

25. Coakley, ‘Using Sport to Control Deviance and Violence among Youth’.

26. Wessells, ‘Community Reconciliation and Post‐conflict Reconstruction, 439.

27. Rookwood, ‘Applying Olympic Values’.

28. Rookwood and Palmer, ‘A Socio‐aesthetic Account of Construction and Destruction in World Football’.

29. Patriksson, ‘Scientific Review’.

30. Obama speech in 2006 in Harrison and Gilbert, Barack Obama, 63.

31. Patriksson, ‘Scientific Review’.

32. Gasser and Levinsen, ‘Breaking Post‐War Ice’.

33. Sugden, ‘Teaching and Playing Sport for Conflict Resolution and Co‐existence in Israel’; Liebmann and Rookwood, ‘Football for Peace?’

34. Said, The End of the Peace Process, 208.

35. Nujidat, ‘A View from the Israeli Sports Authority’, 154.

36. Date‐Bah, Introduction; Howarth, ‘Football for Peace’; Jaimes, ‘NGOs’.

37. Knight, ‘Evaluating Recent Trends in Peacebuilding Research’, 242.

38. Pearn, ‘Children at War’, 166.

39. Honwana, ‘Negotiating Post‐war Identities’, 10.

40. Wessells, ‘Community Reconciliation and Post‐conflict Reconstruction for Peace’.

41. Ibid.

42. Richards et al., ‘Community Cohesion in Liberia’.

43. Wessells, ‘Community Reconciliation and Post‐conflict Reconstruction for Peace’.

44. Tidwell, Conflict Resolved, 134.

45. Armstrong, ‘Talking up the Game’.

46. Rookwood, ‘Soccer for Peace and Social Development’.

47. Lambert, ‘A Values‐based Approach to Coaching Sport in Divided Societies’, 20.

48. Beedy, Sports Plus.

49. Lambert, ‘From Kfar and Menashe to Acco’.

50. McFee, Sport, Rules and Values, 15.

51. Rookwood, ‘Soccer for Peace and Social Development’.

52. Sugden, ‘Community and the Instrumental Use of Football, 410.

53. Dolnik and Gunaratna, ‘On the Nature of Religious Terrorism’.

54. Street Football World, ‘Development through Football’; Rookwood, ‘Soccer for Peace and Social Development’.

55. McNamee, Sports Virtues and Vices, see Chapter 4 entitled ‘Sport and Ethical Development’. Jones and McNamee, ‘Moral Development and Sport’; Cashmore, Making Sense of Sports.

56. Flemming and Tomlinson, ‘Racism and Xenophobia in English Football’; Corrigan, ‘What Do Kids Get Out of Playing Football?’

57. Sugden, ‘Community and the Instrumental Use of Football’.

58. Ibid.

59. Leibmann and Rookwood, ‘Football for Peace?’.

60. Sugden, ‘Teaching and Playing Sport for Conflict Resolution and Co‐existence in Israel’; ‘Community and the Instrumental Use of Football’.

61. Dunning, Murphy and Williams, ‘Ordered Segmentation and Football Hooligan Violence’; Marsh, Rosser and Harre, ‘Life on the Terraces’; Kemp, Gangs II.

62. McFee, Sport Rules and Values, Chapter 1: ‘Definiteness and Defining Sport’.

63. Wessells, ‘Community Reconciliation and Post‐conflict Reconstruction for Peace’.