Institutional racism, whiteness and the under-representation of minorities in leadership positions in football in Europe

Abstract

This article seeks to critically examine the relationship between processes and practices of institutional racism and the continued under-representation of minorities in leadership positions in football in Europe. In doing so, the article will begin by providing a marker for levels of minority representation in senior administrative and governance positions within professional football clubs and national governing bodies of football. The article will then draw on interviews with 20 key stakeholders drawn from 13 different countries to examine the extent and ways in which practices of institutional racism have impacted disproportionately on limiting minority access to – and involvement in – the senior organizational tiers of the game. The article will argue that these practices of institutional racism are underpinned by patterns of white hegemonic privilege embedded within the pre-existing core structures of decision-making bodies at the highest levels of football. Finally, the article will suggest ways through which to challenge and dismantle these practices of racially inflected institutional closure and patterns of white hegemonic privilege and improve the legitimacy and functioning of the sport across the continent.

Notes

1. Carrington, Race, Sport and Politics, 2010.

2. Back, Crabbe, and Solomos, The Changing Face of Football, 2001, 4.

3. Bradbury, Amara, Garcia and Bairner, Representation and Structural Discrimination in Football in Europe, 2011.

4. Bains and Patel, Asians can’t Play Football, 1996; Bains, Asians can Play Football, 2005; Football Task Force, Eliminating Racism from Football, 1998; Commission for Racial Equality, Racial Equality in Football, 2004.

5. Burdsey, Obstacle Race, 2004; Burdsey, British Asians and Football, 2007.

6. Agergaard and Sorenson, The Dreams of Social Mobility, 2009.

7. King, Offside Racism, 2004a; King, Race and Cultural Identity, 2004b.

8. Council of Europe European Commission against Racial Intolerance, Combating Racism and Racial Discrimination in the Field of Sport, 2008; European Union for Fundamental Right, Racism, Ethnic Discrimination and the Exclusion of Migrants and Minorities in Sport, 2011.

9. Burdsey, No Ball Games Allowed, 2006; Burdsey, Forgotten Fields, 2009; Bradbury, From Racial Exclusions to New Inclusions, 2010; Bradbury, Racisms, Resistance and New Youth Inclusions, 2011a; Campbell, What is Rangers Resisting Now, 2011.

10. Halm, ‘Turkish Immigrants in Amateur Football in Germany’, 2005; Agergaard and Sorenson, ‘The Dreams of Social Mobility’, 2009; Bradbury, Amara, Garcia and Bairner, Representation and Structural Discrimination in Football in Europe, 2011.

11. Burdsey, Forgotten Fields, 2009; Andersson, Immigrant Teams in Sweden and the Case of Assyriska, 2009; Bradbury, ‘Racisms, Resistance and New Youth Inclusions’, 2011a.

12. Bradbury, Amara, Garcia and Bairner, ‘Representation and Structural Discrimination in Football in Europe’, 2011.

13. Bradbury, The New Football Communities, 2001; Commission for Racial Equality, Racial Equality in Football, 2004.

14. Bradbury, Amara, Garcia and Bairner, Representation and Structural Discrimination in Football in Europe, 2011.

15. Hylton, Race and Sport, 2009.

16. Bloch and Levy, Refugees, Citizenship and Social Policy in Europe, 1999; Pillai, Kyambi, Nowacka and Sriskandarajah, The Reception and Integration of New Migrant Communities, 2006.

17. Bradbury, The New Football Communities, 2001; Hermes, Burnt Orange, 2005.

18. Bradbury, Amara, Garcia and Bairner, Representation and Structural Discrimination in Football in Europe, 2011.

19. Lanfranchi and Taylor, Moving with the Ball, 2001; Poli, Africans Status in European Footballer Players Labour Market, 2006; Darby, African Football Players Migration to Portugal, 2007.

20. Besson, Poli and Ravenel, Demographic Study of Footballers in Europe, 2010.

21. Bains and Patel, Asians can’t Play Football, 1996; Bains, Asians can Play Football, 2005; Burdsey, Obstacle Race, 2004; Burdsey, British Asians and Football, 2007.

22. Van Sterkenburg, Janssens and Rijen, Football and Racism, 2005; Agergaard and Sorenson, ‘The Dreams of Social Mobility’, 2009.

23. Bradbury, Amara, Garcia and Bairner, Representation and Structural Discrimination in Football in Europe, 2011.

24. Long, Hylton, Spracklen, Ratna and Bailey, Systematic Review of the Literature on Black and Minority Ethnic Communities in Sport and Physical Recreation, 2009; Bradbury, Amara, Garcia and Bairner, Representation and Structural Discrimination in Football in Europe, 2011.

25. Bradbury, The New Football Communities, 2001; Commission for Racial Equality, Racial Equality In Football, 2004; Lusted, Playing Games with ‘Race’, 2009.

26. European Union for Fundamental Right, Racism, Ethnic Discrimination and the Exclusion of Migrants and Minorities in Sport, 2011.

27. Football Task Force, Eliminating Racism from Football, 1998; Bradbury, The New Football Communities, 2001; Commission for Racial Equality, Racial Equality in Football, 2004.

28. Coussey, Tackling Racial Inequality, 2002; Armstrong and Nig, ‘Deconstructing “Race”, Deconstructing Racism’, 2005; Council of Europe European Commission Against Racial Intolerance, Racist Violence in 15 EU Member States, 2005; Council of Europe European Commission Against Racial Intolerance, Annual Report on ECRI Activities, 2010, European Commission, Discrimination in the European Union, 2008; Berman and Paradies, Racism, Disadvantage and Multiculturalism, 2010.

29. Niessen, Diversity and cohesion, 2000; Anthias, New Hybridities, Old Concepts, 2001; Miles and Brown, Racism, 2003; Modood, ‘Ethnicity and Intergenerational Identities and Adaptations in Britain’, 2005; Council of Europe European Commission Against Racial Intolerance, Migrants Experiences of Racism and Xenophobia, 2006.

30. Interviewee, England.

31. Interviewee, France.

32. Interviewee, Germany.

33. Bradbury, The New Football Communities, 2001; Commission for Racial Equality, Racial Equality in Football, 2004.

34. Interviewee, Netherlands.

35. Interviewee: Germany.

36. Bradbury and Williams, New Labour, New Racism and Football in Englan’, 2006; Bradbury, ‘It’s not as Simple as Black and White’, 2011b.

37. Interviewee, Austria.

38. Interviewee, England.

39. Interviewee, Switzerland.

40. Giroux, Pedagogy and the Politics of Hope, 1997, 295.

41. Interviewee, Malta.

42. Interviewee, Hungary.

43. Interviewee, Germany.

44. Interviewee, France.

45. Interviewee, Switzerland.

46. Interviewee, Northern Ireland.

47. Long, ‘No Racism Here?, 2000; Long and Hylton, Shades of White’ 2002; Long, Robinson and Spracklen, Promoting Racial Equality Within Sports Organisations, 2005; Long and Spracklen, Sport and Challenges to Racism, 2011; Bradbury and Williams, New Labour, New Racism and Football in England, 2006; Lusted, Playing Games with ‘Race’’, 2009, Lusted, ‘Negative Equity?’, 2011.

48. Council of Europe: European Commission against Racial Intolerance , Combating Racism and Racial Discrimination in the Field of Sport, 2008; European Union for Fundamental Right, Racism, Ethnic Discrimination and the Exclusion of Migrants and Minorities in Sport, 2011.

49. Lusted, Playing Games with ‘Race’’, 2009, Lusted, ‘Negative Equity?’, 2011.

50. Hylton, Race and Sport, 2009, 10.

51. FIFA, Buenos Aires Resolution against Racism, 2001.

52. UEFA, Tackling Racism in Football, 2006; MacPherson, The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, 1999.

53. Interviewee, Norway.

54. Interviewee, Switzerland.

55. Interviewee, France.

56. Interviewee, Austria.

57. Interviewee, Germany.

58. Interviewee, Switzerland.

59. Hylton, Race and Sport, 2009.