Rhodesia and FIFA: racial discrimination, political legitimacy and football, 1960 to 1980

ABSTRACT

Rhodesia (colonial Zimbabwe) was a member of FIFA from 1965 until its suspension in 1970, playing a single qualifying match against Australia for the 1970 World Cup. Rhodesia was under sanctions as a result of the white minority regime’s unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) from Great Britain, which affected athletes’ ability to participate in international sport. Football was the most popular sport for the black majority, though like other sports it was organized around private clubs, allowing informal racial segregation to persist. The Football Association of Rhodesia (originally the Southern Rhodesian Football Association) was the official FIFA affiliate, though it faced persistent challenges to its control of Rhodesian soccer as a result of its white leadership. A new racially integrated organization, the National Football Association of Rhodesia (NFAR), became the controlling body for football under black leadership by the mid-1970s. NFAR became the Zimbabwe Football Association and was admitted to FIFA in 1980.

Acknowledgments

Michael Schmalholz, the librarian at the FIFA Museum in Zurich, provided invaluable assistance especially with official FIFA documents. All correspondence cited in this article is from the FIFA Archives. The Rhodesia file is divided into two boxes, labeled a ‘1961 to 1963ʹ box and a ‘1970 to 1973ʹ box. Despite the labels, the correspondence files are continuous. Special thanks goes to the archivists for their assistance.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. Thompson, Story of Rhodesian Sport, 85.

2. Novak, ‘Sport and Racial Discrimination in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 852–53.

3. Ibid., 853.

4. Thompson, Story of Rhodesian Sport, 86–109.

5. Chiweshe, ‘Till Death Do Us Part’, 102.

6. Stuart, ‘Players, Workers, Protestors’, 174.

7. Chipande, ‘Mining for Goals’, 60–61.

8. Stuart, ‘Players, Workers, Protestors’, 174–75.

9. Ncube, ‘The Interface’, 201.

10. Chiweshe, ‘Till Death Do Us Part’, 102, 106, 111.

11. Muzondidya, ‘Walking a Tightrope’, 164.

12. McDowell, ‘Scottish Football and Colonial Zimbabwe’, 73–99.

13. Stuart, ‘Players, Workers, Protestors’, 171–72.

14. Ibid., 177.

15. Darby, Africa, Football and FIFA, 26.

16. Muzondidya, Walking the Tightrope, 164–65.

17. O’Meara, ‘Rhodesia/Zimbabwe’, 22.

18. Chiweshe, ‘Understanding the Processes’, 175.

19. O’Meara, ‘Rhodesia/Zimbabwe’, 27–28.

20. Novak, ‘Abuse of State Power’, 33, 45; Lowry, ‘Impact of Anti-Communism’, 183.

21. Matibe, Madhinga Bucket Boy, 165–170.

22. Ibid., 205.

23. Godwin and Hancock, ‘Rhodesians Never Die’, 128.

24. Little, ‘Rebellion, Race and Rhodesia’, 531–32.

25. Chiweshe, ‘Till Death Do Us Part’, 102.

26. John Madzima, Memorandum to NFAR Annual Report, 11 January 1975.

27. Report, International Olympic Committee Commission of Enquiry for Rhodesia, 1975.

28. Little, ‘The Sports Boycott’, 201–02.

29. Kurt Gassmann, ‘Chronology of Situation in South Africa’, FIFA Executive Committee, 24 June 1961 and 6 July 1961.

30. Bolsmann, ‘White Football in South Africa’, 32.

31. Ibid., 36.

32. Gassmann, ‘Chronology’, 24 June 1961 and 6 July 1961.

33. Ibid.

34. Bolsmann, ‘White Football in South Africa’, 37–38.

35. Letter from South African Soccer Federation to Executive Committee, 7 September 1961.

36. Gassman, ‘Chronology’, 24 June 1961 and 6 July 1961.

37. Report, Helmut Käser to Executive Committee about correspondence with South African Olympic Committee, 7 September 1961.

38. Gassmann, ‘Chronology’, 24 June 1961 and 6 July 1961.

39. Letter, Ivor Montagu to FIFA Executive Committee, 31 August 1961.

40. Bolsmann, ‘White Football in South Africa’, 40.

41. Ibid., 29, 42.

42. Dietschy, ‘Making Football Global?’, 296–97.

43. Little, ‘The Sport Boycott Against Rhodesia Reconsidered’, 202.

44. Ibid., 205 note 44; Novak, ‘Rhodesia’s “Rebel and Racist” Olympic Team’, 1382.

45. Little, ‘Rebellion, Race and Rhodesia’, 531.

46. Novak, ‘Rhodesia’s “Rebel and Racist” Olympic Team’, 1379.

47. Giulianotti, ‘Football in Zimbabwe’, 85.

48. Ibid.

49. Ibid., 85–86.

50. Letter, W.J. Townsend to Kurt Gassman, 4 July 1961.

51. Letter, W.J. Townsend to FIFA General Secretary, 29 July 1961.

52. Constitution of SRFA and Application for FIFA Membership, 5 August 1961.

53. Letter, Stanley Rous to Helmut Käser, 4 September 1961.

54. Letter, R. Courte to General Secretary of SRFA, 30 March 1962.

55. Strack, Sanctions, 219.

56. Letter, Honourable Secretary SRFA to FIFA, 26 August 1963.

57. Letter, Helmut Käser to H. Humphreys, 1 November 1963.

58. Letter, Gideon Mazava to Helmut Käser, 28 December 1963.

59. Letter, Gerald Raftopoulos to Helmut Käser, 31 December 1963.

60. Letter, H. Humphreys to Helmut Käser, 11 August 1963.

61. H. Humphreys, ‘Evidence and Extracts from Minutes of Various Meetings’, 10 October 1963.

62. Ibid.

63. Helmut Käser, ‘Report on the Visit of Sir Stanley Rous and Mr. McGuire to Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia’, 10 January 1964.

64. Letter, V.V.B. May to Helmut Käser, 26 May 1964.

65. ‘What Colour the Ball?’ Rhodesia Herald, 26 October 1963.

66. H. Humphreys, ‘Evidence and Extracts from Minutes of Various Meetings’, 10 October 1963.

67. Letter, H. Humphreys to Helmut Käser, 17 February 1964.

68. ‘Chigumira Supports MFA Plan’, Bulawayo Chronicle, 14 September 1963.

69. FIFA Executive Committee Meeting Minutes (London), 22 October 1963.

70. FIFA Executive Committee Meeting Minutes (Zurich), 31 January 1964, 5; FIFA Executive Committee Meeting Minutes (Tokyo), 5 October 1964, 5.

71. Letter, Helmut Käser to Southern Rhodesia Football Association, 17 February 1964.

72. Letter, H. Humphreys to Helmut Käser, 17 February 1964.

73. ‘SA Clubs to Help Out Rhodesian Soccer’, Sunday Times, 19 April 1964.

74. Letter, Stanley Rous to George Kerr, 18 November 1964.

75. Rous, Football Worlds, 170–71.

76. FIFA Emergency Committee Meeting minutes (Zurich), February 26–27, 1965.

77. Statement of George Kerr, FIFA News, No. 89, October 1970, 351–353.

78. Letter, Victor V.S. May to Helmut Käser, 13 April 1965.

79. Ibid.

80. Coggins, ‘Wilson and Rhodesia’, 370–371; Cefkin, ‘Rhodesian Question’, 649.

81. Letter, Käser to Participants in Guadalajara meeting about world championship Group 15, 17 September 1968.

82. Letter, Ian McAndrew to Helmut Käser, 18 September 1968.

83. FIFA News, No. 77, October 1969, 260.

84. Strack, Sanctions, 219–20.

85. Minutes of the Ordinary Congress, Mexico City, 23 June 1970, 4.

86. Ibid., 5.

87. Statement by George Kerr, FIFA News, October 1970, 351–353.

88. Rous, ‘Some Reflections on Mexico 1970ʹ, 232.

89. ‘Ethiopian Football Federation Views Against Rous Article, “Some Reflections on Mexico 1970”’, FIFA News, September 1970, 293–294.

90. FIFA Executive Committee Meeting Minutes (Dusseldorf), 20 July 1971, 13.

91. Executive Committee Minutes, Dusseldorf, 20 July 1971.

92. Recommendation of the Ad Hoc Commission, Zurich, 6 November 1971.

93. Letter, George Kerr to Helmut Käser, 9 June 1972.

94. Executive Committee Minutes, Paris, 23 August 1972.

95. Letter, George Kerr to Helmut Käser, 9 October 1973.

96. Affidavit of John Madzima, 28 June 1973.

97. Ibid.

98. ‘RNFL Backs Out of FAR’, Rhodesia Herald, 7 October 1973; Letter, I.A. Adam to George Kerr, 1 October 1973.

99. Letter, Helmut Käser to John Madzima, 7 November 1973.

100. Letter, Helmut Käser to George Kerr, 7 November 1973.

101. John Kennedy, ‘FIFA Letter Backs FAR Stand’, Rhodesia Herald, 26 November 1973.

102. John Kennedy, ‘New Twist to the Soccer Row’, Rhodesia Herald, Undated clipping, November 1973.

103. Madzima, ‘Dossier’.

104. ‘Football Fiasco’, Rhodesia Herald, 30 October 1973; ‘FAR Is Left High and Dry’, Rhodesia Herald, 24 November 1973.

105. ‘Shock Move by Football Chief’, Rhodesia Herald, 13 October 1973; ‘Soccer Shock as Walker Vacates FAR Hot Seat’, Rhodesia Herald, 31 October 1973; ‘Dissolve FAR Assets Says Chigumira’, Rhodesia Herald, 14 November 1973.

106. ‘Big Swop for Soccer Cup’, Rhodesia Herald, 14 December 1973.

107. ‘Cash Boost for New Cup Set-Up’, Rhodesia Herald, 22 December 1973.

108. ‘Rhodesian Football Poised for Unity at the Top’, Sunday Mail, 30 December 1973.

109. Letter, John Madzima to Helmut Käser, 6 February 1974.

110. Letter, Helmut Käser to John Madzima, 8 April 1974.

111. FIFA Executive Committee Meeting Minutes (Frankfurt), 9 June 1974, 8; Letter, George Kerr to Helmut Käser, 22 April 1974.

112. Letter, John Madzima to Helmut Käser, 9 January 1975; Letter, John Madzima to Havelange, 8 January 1975.

113. Report, FIFA Executive Committee and Standing Committees, 1974–1976, 5.

114. NFAR Report, ‘Rhodesian Football: 1974ʹ.

115. Letter, Valdemarca to Secretary of NFAR, 30 December 1974.

116. ‘Historic Move Say the Referees’, Rhodesia Herald, 9 January 1975.

117. NFAR Report, ‘Rhodesian Football: 1974ʹ.

118. Executive Committee Minutes, Dakar, 30 April 1975.

119. Press Statement, National Football Association of Rhodesia, 15 April 1975.

120. Executive Committee Minutes, Rio de Janeiro, 6 April 1976, 11.

121. FIFA Report, July 1976 to May 1978, 4.

122. FIFA Report, June 1978 to March 1980, 2; FIFA Report, July 1980 to April 1982.

123. Darby, ‘Stanley Rous’s “Own Goal”’, 259.

124. Rous, Football Worlds, 202.