ABSTRACT
This article examines the ways in which North Koreans experienced and documented the American bombing campaign during the 1950–1953 Korean War. This bombing killed more than twenty percent of the North Korean population, but the everyday perspective of North Koreans of this traumatic event has not been widely studied. Drawing on official records, personal correspondence, newspaper reports, propaganda, North Korean documents, and literary journals, this article reconstructs the reality of the bombing as seen from ground zero. It examines North Korean responses – ranging from grief to anger – to the bombing and the ways it shaped their collective identity and reinforced their determination to fight.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Robert Shepherd and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and editorial suggestions.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Su-kyoung Hwang teaches Korean Studies at the University of Sydney. She is the author of Korea’s Grievous War (University of Pennsylvania, 2016).
Notes
1 Yi Citation2012, 229–231. Yi Hŭng-hwan’s edited volume contains a selection of letters that North Koreans wrote during the war. The letters are from boxes 1138 and 1139 of Record Group 242 at the U.S. National Archives, College Park, MD.
2 Far East Air Force 1950, 3.
3 In this article the DPRK will be referred to as North Korea, and the Republic of Korea (ROK) as South Korea.
8 Han Citation2012b, 341–342. Dutch historian Jacques Presser coined the term “ego-document” during the 1950s. See Dekker Citation2002, 13–14.
11 Curtis LeMay used the “stone age” metaphor to describe USAF bombing strategy from World War II to the Vietnam War era. Stone Citation2006, 331–332; Futrell [Citation1961] 2017, 139.
24 Kim Citation2004; Sŏ Citation2002; Yi Citation2017. The practice of targeting civilians persisted during the Vietnam War. Vietnamese survivors of attacks also claimed that American aircraft “consciously and deliberately attacked” them. See Kuzmarov Citation2012, 2, 16. Kuzmarov quote’s David Dellinger 1966.
48 At No Gun Ri, American troops shot South Korean civilians under a military order that treated all civilians near the enemy line as enemies. See Suh Citation2012, 217; Hanley Citation2015, 3–4.
64 A 1988 British documentary, Korea: The Unknown War offers visual examples of such shelters. See Whitby Citation1990.
77 For a survey of North Korean bomb literature, see Eun-jeong Kim Citation2014, 452–469.
79 Cho Citation1951. This poem is also quoted in An [Citation1951] 2001, 102–103. The remainder of the poem describes the heroic resistance of the North Korean people working in reconstruction sites and fighting on battlefields. Despite Cho’s celebration of survival and call for heroic resistance, he died a few months after writing this poem in a July 1951 bombing attack.
89 According to former North Korean diplomat Thae Yong-ho, the American nuclear threat was the original cause of North Korea’s interest in developing nuclear weapons starting in the 1950s. See Thae Citation2018, 47–49.
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