Abstract
This paper summarises our state of knowledge regarding diaspora engagement in conflict socieities. It presents a map of possible diaspora contributions and their specific potential positive and negative impacts in societies experiencing or recovering from conflict. Following a discussion of diasporas and their motivations for engagement in their places of origin, the paper reviews the specific remittance, philanthropy, human capital and policy influence contributions, both positive and negative, that diasporas may make. Policy implications include the need more systematically to include considerations of diasporas in conflict/post-conflict interventions, and based on a more careful case-by-case analysis, using the provided map as a starting point. Such analyses can inform decisions of when to tolerate, unencumbered, diaspora engagement; when to facilitate or support such engagement; and when to consider strategic partnering with diaspora efforts. By mapping potential positive and negative influences of diasporas, the paper establishes why a more nuanced understanding of diasporas and peace and conflict is so important to policy and practice for a more peaceful world.
Notes
1. Since the end of World War II, 236 armed conflicts have been recorded worldwide, with 126 of those occurring since the end of the Cold War alone (CitationHarbom et al., ‘Dyadic Dimensions’). In 2007, 34 of these conflicts were active. From 2002 to 2007 alone, 118 non-state conflicts occurred; these are conflicts involving rebel groups, or ethnic and/or religious communities.
2. According to the OECD, in 2007 member countries spent $37.2 billion on 48 fragile and conflict-affected states, with 50 per cent of that reaching only five countries (Iraq, Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Pakistan, and Sudan) (CitationOECD, ‘Ensuring Fragile States’, 2).
3. By the end of 2007, conflicts had generated over 14 million refugees and asylum seekers and 21 million internally displaced people; worldwide, over 8.5 million refugees have been warehoused for 10 years or more (CitationUSCR, World Refugee Survey). In the United States alone, between 1980 and 2007, over 2.3 million refugees arrived (USOIS, Citation2007
Yearbook).
7. CitationBrinkerhoff and Riddle, ‘Diaspora Research, Policy, and Practice’. The online survey (15 September–15 November 2008) was accessed by over 106 individuals, not all of whom completed the entire survey. We solicited participation through the GW Diaspora Research Programme listserv; authors publishing in Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies since its inception; invitations and dissemination requests to key personnel from research institutes with programmes related to diasporas and development, across the United States, Europe and Canada; and through a snowball sample. Approximately 73 per cent of respondents were based in developed countries, almost evenly split between North America (mostly the United States) and Europe; of the approximately 27 per cent of respondents from developing countries, 20 developing countries were represented. Given the sample size, we cannot assume that the findings are reliable; they are nevertheless suggestive of a knowledgeable population.
9. See CitationKoslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.
13. See CitationLyons, ‘Conflict-Generated Diasporas’ on Ethiopia; and CitationKoinova, ‘Can Conflict-Generated Diasporas be Moderate Actors’ on Lebanon.
16. I use the phrase quality of life to refer to the typical outcomes of economic development. This may include but not be limited to supporting basic needs as well as improving important development outcomes such as health and education.
23. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas.
25. Koinova, ‘Can Conflict-Generated Diasporas be Moderate Actors’.
26. CitationBigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’, 333; see also Lyons, ‘Conflict-Generated Diasporas’.
28. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas.
29. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas
30. Koinova, ‘Can Conflict-Generated Diasporas be Moderate Actors’; see also CitationShain, Marketing the American Creed Abroad.
32. See CitationKoslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.
34. CitationKoslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.
37. Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and Conflict Prevention’.
41. CitationHorst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 320.
48. CitationByman et al., Trends in Outside Support. Notable cases include support to the Tamil rebels in Sri Lanka, Kurdish guerrillas in Turkey, and the Palestinian Liberation Organisation. The Irish Republican Army is a well-known demonstration of diasporas' role in sustaining conflict.
49. Adamson, ‘Globalization’.
50. Byman et al., Trends in Outside Support.
51. Adamson, ‘Globalization’; ‘Crossing Borders’.
52. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’.
54. Bigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’.
55. See also Koslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.
56. See, for example, Ibid.
58. Adamson, ‘Globalization’.
60. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 322.
61. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 322
62. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 322, 331.
64. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’; CitationKleist, ‘Mobilising “The Diaspora”’.
65. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 334.
69. See Lubkemann, ‘Remittance Relief’.
70. Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and International Development’.
71. Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and International Development’; CitationBrinkerhoff, ‘Diaspora Philanthropy’.
72. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’.
73. Lubkemann, ‘Remittance Relief’.
74. Adamson, ‘Globalization’.
77. Portions of this section draw from CitationBrinkerhoff, ‘Exploring the Role of Diasporas in Rebuilding Governance’.
82. See, for example, CitationIOM, World Migration 2005.
83. See, for example, CitationBlack, ‘Return and Reconstruction in Bosnia-Herzegovina’.
85. CitationWayland, ‘Ethnonationalist Networks’; Koslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.
86. Byman et al., Trends in Outside Support.
87. On the Kurds, see Koslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.
90. See Mohamoud, Mobilising African Diaspora.
93. Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and International Development’.
96. CitationKleist, ‘Mobilising “The Diaspora”’; Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’.
98. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’.
99. See CitationZunzer, ‘Diaspora Communities and Civil Conflict Transformation’; CitationPILPG, Engaging Diaspora Communities in Peace Processes.
103. PILPG, Engaging Diaspora Communities in Peace Processes.
104. See, for example, Baser and Swain, ‘Diasporas as Peacemakers’.
105. Zunzer, ‘Diaspora Communities and Civil Conflict Transformation’.
107. See, for example, CitationFaist, ‘“Extension du Domaine de la Lutte”’; Sheffer, Diaspora Politics; Collier and Hoeffler, ‘Greed and Grievances’.
108. Cochrane, ‘Irish-America’.
112. Bigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’, 335.
114. Horst and Gaas, ‘Diaspora Organizations from the Horn of Africa’. For example, the Network of Ethiopian Muslims in Europe.
116. See, for example, Bigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’.
117. For example, International Alert in Armenia and Sri Lanka.
118. See PILPG, Engaging Diaspora Communities in Peace Processes. For example, DFID's support to the UK-based Sierra Leone Investment Forum.
120. CitationCollier and Hoeffler, ‘Greed and Grievances in Civil War’. For example, Bigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’.
122. The authors do not discuss these findings, leaving the interpretation to those who may be relatively knowledgeable regarding diaspora peace-promoting activities.
123. For example, in Liberia, Lubkemann, ‘Remittance Relief’.
124. Adamson, ‘Crossing Borders’; ‘Globalization’.
128. Horst and Gaas, ‘Diaspora Organizations from the Horn of Africa’.
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