‘Tough negotiations’. The two Germanys in Syria and Iraq, 1963–74Massimiliano Trentin, PhD in History of International Relations, University of Florence, Department of ‘Studi sullo Stato’, conducted his doctoral research on Syrian–German cooperation. His interests focus on the role of the Third World in shaping international relations, particularly as far as the Middle East is concerned.

Massimiliano Trentin, PhD in History of International Relations, University of Florence, Department of ‘Studi sullo Stato’, conducted his doctoral research on Syrian–German cooperation. His interests focus on the role of the Third World in shaping international relations, particularly as far as the Middle East is concerned.

Abstract

When the Cold War joined the decolonization process both camps had to answer the major challenges faced by the newly-independent states, that is political independence and economic development. Besides their own priorities in the Arab Middle East, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic offered their own models for modernization as alternatives and connected with a camp-choice. The research points out how Syrian and Iraqi regimes actually neutralized such a linkage and tried to secure their nation-building development through the exploitation of Cold War rivalry. German archives offer a deep insight into the troubled relations between Arab nationalism and Europe in the 1960s and mid-1970s.

Acknowledgements

This paper is part of the PhD Dissertation: ‘Which Modernity for Syria? The Birth of the Ba'thist Regime in the Shade of the Berlin Wall, 1963–1970’. I would like to thank Prof. Marta Petricioli and Prof. Rizkallah Hilane for their active support and useful suggestions.

Notes

Massimiliano Trentin, PhD in History of International Relations, University of Florence, Department of ‘Studi sullo Stato’, conducted his doctoral research on Syrian–German cooperation. His interests focus on the role of the Third World in shaping international relations, particularly as far as the Middle East is concerned.

 [1] See Beinin, ‘The New McCarthyism’, 103; Kramer, ‘When Minorities Rule’, 5.

 [2] See Hinnebush, The International Politics of the Middle East, 52; Westad, The Global Cold War, 3–4, 399.

 [3] See Hinnebush, The International Politics of the Middle East, 25; Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, 40.

 [4] Pasquino, Modernization, 243.

 [5] For a general introduction on the theme see Duverger, I sistemi politici, 145–178.

 [6] MfAA/C 1358/75, Botschaft der DDR Damaskus, Gesprächnotiz mit dem Vorsitzenden der Internationalen Abteilung der Ba'th Partei, 3 December 1971; Bozarslan, La Question kurde, 80, 146; Berger, ‘From Nation-Building to State-Building’, 7.

 [7] Hilane, Culture et Développement en Syrie, 154, 162.

 [8] OAPD, Rapport 1963–1964 sur l'économie syrienne, Damascus, 1965, 71, 260; Zubeide, ‘Die Perspektiven’, 65, 70.

 [9] See for example Ramet, The Soviet–Syrian Relationship, 14; Smolansky, The USSR and Iraq, 25.

[10] See the excellent Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq, 653, 709.

[11] MfAA/C 489/73, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Bericht Zur Entwicklung der Syrischen Arabischen Republik, 16 December 1965, Grunert; SAPMO-Barchiv, DY30 IV A2/20 816, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Information. Die politische Entwicklungen in Irak, 31 October 1967, Jäschke; PA AA B36 IB4 252, SIBRD Damaskus, Telegramm, Neue Richtung in der Ba'th Partei, 14 April 1966, Schwartze. Since Syria and Iraq broke off diplomatic relations with Bonn in 1965, FRG diplomatic missions (Schutzmachtvertretung für Interesse der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, here SIBRD) were hosted by the French embassies; Devlin, The Ba'th Party, 218, 302.

[12] See Lorenzini, Due Germanie in Africa, 61; Gray, Germany's Cold War, 65, 132.

[13] AAPD, 1969, II, 372, Bundesminister Scheel an Bundesminister Schmidt, 20 November 1969; AAPD, 1970, I, 40, Aufzeichnung des Ministerialdirigenten Gehlhoff, 11 February 1970; AAPD, 1971, I, 237, Gespräch des Bundesministers Scheel mit Ministerpräsidentin Meir in Tel Aviv, 7 July 1971.

[14] Moscow promoted the NCR in 1961, Graf, ‘The Theory’, 31; Kai, ‘Von der nationalen Frage’, 85.

[15] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY30 A2/20 876, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Internes Materiel des Generalkonsulats, 8 October, 1968, Scharf; AAPD, 1968, II, 300, Bundesregierung Brandt an Regierungsrat Preuss, Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit, 16 September 1968.

[16] R. Hilane, former consultant of the Syrian Council of Ministers, interview with the author, 21 September 2006, Damascus; Jamil Qadry, former SCP member, interview with the author, 17 August 2006, Damascus.

[17] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 A2/20 820, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Bericht. Die Ba'th Partei Syriens und der Konflikt im Nahost, 13 August 1968, Grunert; Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Bericht. Die regionale Politik der Ba'th Partei, 9 October 1970, Fichter; Ayubi, Over-stating the Arab State, 137.

[18] In the early 1950s ruling and military elites in Syria were much favourable to engage with the US, but US-Syrian reapproachement had been disrupted by divergence on the Arab–Israeli question, Lesch, Syria and the United States, 25.

[19] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY30 A2/20 821, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Vermerk, 18 September 1967, Fichter; see Tripp, A History of Iraq, 13.

[20] See Winter, Konfliktregion, 19; Herf, Divided Memories, 16, 138, 195, 338.

[21] PA AA B36 IB4 253, AA an SIBRD Bagdad, Aufzeichnung. Die Politik der BRD im Nahost, 11 June 1966, Schirmer; PA AA B 36 IB4 330, SIBRD Damaskus, Vermerk, 19 August 1970, Fechter; AAPD, 1967, II, 301, Gespräch des Bundeskanzler Kiesinger mit Präsident Johnson in Washington, 15 August 1967; 1224; Hubel, ‘Germany and the Middle East Conflict’, 41. See also the excellent Gerlach, Die doppelte Front, 83, 96–97, 134.

[22] PA AA B36 IB4 126, Botschaft BRD Damaskus, Bericht. Die Politik der syrischen Regierung gegenüber Israel, 27 May 1964, Mangold; PA AA B36 IB4 304, SIBRD Damaskus, Telegramm, 28 January 1967, Schwartze; PA AA B36 IB4 487, AA an SIBRD Damaskus, Telegramm, Bonn, 9 January 1969, Gehlhoff; AAPD, 1971, I, 237, Gespräch des Bundesministers Scheel mit Ministerpräsidentin Meir in Tel Aviv, 7 July 1971.

[23] MfAA/C500/73, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Gesprächnotiz mit syrischem Verteidigungsminister, 18 January 1967, Grunert; Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Telegramm, 9 November 1973, Konschel; SAPMO-Barchiv, DY 30 A2/20 871, Botschaft DDR Moskau, Telegramm, 11 July 1969, Grabowsky; DY 30 A2/20 876, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Information. Gespräch mit Vorsitzenden der Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen der Ba'th Partei, 24 October 1970, Hähnel; PA AA B36 IB4 304, SIBRD Damaskus, Bericht. Die politische Tätigkeit der SBZ in Syrien 5 February 1967, Vorndran; W. Konschel, former GDR ambassador in Syria, interview with the author, Berlin, 25 January 2006; Winter, Konfliktregion, 19, 25–27. See also Ramet, The Soviet–Syrian Relationship, 96.

[24] PA AA B36 IB4 203, SIBRD Damaskus, Gespräch mit Staatssekretär Syriens, 10 November 1965, Pfeiffer; AAPD, 1965, II, 372, Gespräch des Bundeskanzler Erhard mit dem israelischen Botschafter Ben Natan, 30 September 1965; AAPD, 1965, I, 134, Aufzeichnung des Ministerialdirigenten Böker, 19 March 1965; M. al Imady, former Minister of Economy, interview with the author, Damascus, 16 July 2006. See Gray, Germany's Cold War, 177.

[25] PA AA B66 IIIB6 Band 458, AA an Botschaft Bagdad, Telegramm, 5 May 1965, Keiser; PA AA B36 IB4 204, SIBRD Damaskus an AA, Telegramm, 4 September 1965, Pfeiffer; AAPD, 1965, II, 50, Gespräch des Bundeskanzler Erhard mit dem syrischen Botschafter Khabbaz, 2 February 1965; AAPD, 1965, I, 134, Aufzeichnung des Ministerialdirigenten Böker, 19 March 1965. See Gray, Germany's Cold War, 174–182.

[26] PA AA B36 IB4 202, SIBRD Damaskus, Telegramm, 4 June 1965, Pfeiffer; PA AA B66 IIIB6 483, Botschaft BRD Bagdad, Bericht. Die Konsequenzen des Beschlüsses der arabischen Liga für die BRD, 24 November 1965; PA AA B66 IIIB6 253, SIBRD Damaskus, Bericht. Die wirtschaftliche Beziehungen mit Syrien, 29 November 1966, Pfeiffer; SAPMO-Barchiv, DY 30 A2/20, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Bericht. Die Aktivitäten der BRD in Irak, 5 March 1969, Schultze.

[27] PA AA B36 IB4 203, SIBRD Damaskus, Gespräch mit Vorsitzenden der Abteilung Europa beim syrischen Auswärtigen Amt, 23 October 1965, Vorndran; PA AA B66 IIIB6 483, AA an BMW, Bericht. Die Zusammenarbeit mit Syrien, 22 July 1965, Keiser; SAPMO-BArchiv, DL2 VAN 677, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Information, 21 January 1970, Weitz.

[28] AAPD, 1969, II, 372, Bundesminister Scheel an Bundesminister Schmidt, 20 November 1969. See also Gerlach, Die doppelte Front, 50, 55; Gray, Germany's Cold War, 174–182, 209–219.

[29] SAPMO-Barchiv, DY 30 A2/20 819, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Gespräch mit Vorsitzenden der Abteilung Internationalen Verbindungen der Ba'th Partei, 15 April 1969, Grunert; DY 30 A2/20 871, Sekretariat des Zk der Sed, Konzeption für die Verhandlungen mit arabischen Staaten für die diplomatische Anerkennung, 23 May 1969; DL2 1584, 3.AEA, Information, 23 June 1969; DY 34 7983, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Gespräch mit Vorsitzenden des irakischen Gewerkschaftsbundes, 27 May 1969, Schultze; AAPD, 1969, I, 192, Legationsrat I. Klasse Schwartze, Damaskus, an Staatssekretär Dückwitz, 7 June 1969.

[30] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 A2/20 871, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Gespräch mit sowjetischem Botschaft, 5 March 1968, Grunert; DY 30 A2/20 819, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Information, 15 April 1969, Schultze.

[31] MfAA/C 511/73, MAI, Dirktionsbereich Übersee, Aufzeichnung. Die wirtschaftliche und technische Zusammenarbeit mit Irak, 15 April 1969, Kattner; SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 2/20 873, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Bericht. Die Zusammenarbeit mit der Ba'th Partei, 23 January 1969, Grunert; H-D. Winter, Konfliktregion, 15; Gray, Germany's Cold War, 212–215.

[32] Westad, The Global Cold War, 86, 97. For a general view of the complex relationship between the Cold War and developing states, see also Kanet, ‘The Superpower Quest’.

[33] See Graf, ‘The Theory’, 30; Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth, 34; Richards and Waterbury, A Political Economy, 37.

[34] See for example Ayubi, Over-stating the Arab State, 38; Owen, State, Power.

[35] Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, 10–38, 98–112. ‘Men are chosen not for who they are or whom they know, but for what they can do’, Landes, The Unbound Prometheus, 538–555.

[36] Hansen, 13.

[37] For a general introduction to the political-economy of the Middle East see Richards and Waterbury, A Political Economy, 21; Balcet, Industrializzazione, Multinazionali e Dipendenza Tecnologica, 85.

[38] PA AA B36 IB4 125, Botschaft BRD Damaskus, Bericht. Unruhen in Hama, 16 April 1964, Mangold. The FRG ambassador labelled the Ba'thist economic policies as ‘die pragmatische Politk des improvisierten Sozialismus’; the same opinion is shared by M. al Imady, former Minister of Economy and Foreign Trade, interview with the author, Damascus, 3 June 2006.

[39] Hilane, Culture et Développement en Syrie, 183, 207, 235; Abdel Fadil, The Political Economy, 107.

[40] See, for example, Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 47, 149.

[41] See MfAA/C 489/73, Jahresbericht 1963 and Jahresbericht 1964, Gaile, and the excellent Lobmeyer, Opposition und Widerstand in Syrien.

[42] PA AA B36 IB4 202, Botschaft BRD Damaskus, Bericht. Die finanzielle Lage Syriens, 10 May 1965, Pfeiffer; OAPD, Rapport 1964–1965 sur l'économie syrienne, Damascus, 1966, 62–78.

[43] PA AA B36 IB4 204, Bericht. Entsendung eines militärattachés nach Damaskus, AA IB4 an Bundesminister für Verteidigung, 7 October 1964, Schirmer. According to the GDR's experts in the Syrian Ministry of Agriculture, the FRG still enjoyed much support from high-level officials, which were closely connected with the large rural landlords and the urban merchants. Much of the same happened in the Foreign Ministry, see MfAA/B 1213–75.

[44] For GDR–Syrian Agreement on Scientific and Technical Cooperation, see SAPMO-Barchiv, DL2 VA 7338, Protololle, Vereinbarungen und Abkommen zwichen DDR und SAR, 1965–1988; OAPD, Rapport 1967–1968 sur l'économie syrienne, Damascus, 1969, 25–36; OAPD, Rapport 1969–1970 sur l'économie syrienne, Damascus, 1971, 27–38.

[45] MfAA/C 527/73, Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Ministère du Plan de la RAS, Envoi des experts étrangers pour le Ministère, 20 December 1965; MfAA/B 1208/75, 3 AEA, Bericht über Tätigkeit der Berater der DDR in der SAR 1968–1972, 4 October 1972; OAPD, Rapport 1963–1964 sur l'économie syrienne, Damascus, 1965, 102. The GDR had a direct influence on the reform of the local administrative institutions, too. All such efforts aimed at consolidating and centralizing the state's power and setting up a more consistent framework for state interventions. Interestingly enough, the GDR's contribuition was welcomed by all different factions inside the Ba'thist regime and by non-Marxist economists and politicians, too; OAPD, Les Principes de Base du Projet de Loi sur l'Administration Locale. Texte Intégral. Damas, June 1968; A. al Ahmar, Assistant Secretary of the Ba'th Party, National Command, interview with the author, Damascus, 17 August 2006.

[46] PA AA B66 IIIB6 B6 425, Botschaft BRD Damaskus, Gespräche mit Beamten des AA Syriens, 25 March 1965, Kindler; PA AA B36 IB4 205, SIBRD Damaskus, Gespräche mitdem Leiter der Europa-Abteilung beim AA Syriens, Damascus, 21 February 1966, Pfeiffer.

[47] PA AA B66 IIIB6 425, Botschaft BRD Damaskus, Gespräche mit dem Leiter der Europa-Abteilung des AA Syriens, 25 March 1965, Mangold; PA AA B36 IB4 205, SIBRD Damaskus, Gespräche mit Beamten des AA Syriens, 21 February 1966, Schwartze.

[48] See, for example Amiralay, Film essai sur la vallée de l'Euphrate; Amin, Irak et Syrie, 34, 56; PA AA B36 IB4 54, Gemeinsame Kommuniqué BRD und SAR, Bad Godesberg, 16 January 1963; PA AA B66 IIIB6 439, Kreditanstalt für Wideraufbau, Bericht. Verhandlungen für Euphrat-Damm, Frankfurt am Mainz, 9 April 1964; PA AA B66 IIIB6 440, Siztung des Lenkunsauschusses, Bonn, 5 November 1964.

[49] PAAA B66 IIIB6 396, Botschaft BRD Damaskus, Gespräch mit syrischen Wirtschaftsminister, 17 January 1964, Mangold; D. Hido, former Director at the Ministry of Economy and Foreign Trade, interview with the author, Damascus, 7 July 2006. PA AA B36 IB4 54, Botschaft BRD Damaskus, Bericht, Euphrat-Damm, 31 March 1965, Mangold. France, the United States and Italy supported the FRG's engagement because they believed that Syria could be ultimately ‘recovered’ to the West only through economic channels, PA AA B36 IB4 125, Botschaft BRD Paris, Telegramm, 18 December 1965; Botschaft BRD Washington, Telegramm, 21 January 1966; Botschaft BRD Rome, Telegramm, 3 March 1966.

[50] PA AA B36 IB4 252, SIBRD Damaskus, Bericht, Euphrat-Damm, 28 April 1966, Pfeiffer. Here, all the events were defined as a ‘Theaterstück’. Interestingly, the Soviet offer was technically more advanced and cheaper than the German one. However the previous Ba'thist government still preferred a Western partner for political reasons: it perfectly realized the international relevance of such projects and hoped to engage the Western camp to counterbalance the increasing socialist influence, PA AA B66 IB3 491, SIBRD Damaskus, Bericht, Die neue Regierung al Bitar und die Verhandlungen für den Euphrat-Damm, 4 January 1966, Pfeiffer; M. al Imady, former Minister of Economy and Foreign Trade, interview with the author, Damascus, 16 July 2006.

[51] Previously, foreign trade companies had used local Syrian agents to handle bids for contracts. Besides the comparative advantages of their clients, the closer connections the agents had with ruling élites, the more possibilities they had to win contracts. The biography of Chawfiq Nahas is quite interesting for the non-ideological commitment to foreign trade of the different Syrian regimes. He worked as influential trade intermediary for both GDR and FRG import–export companies. In 1969 he was temporarily jailed for corruption but later released and co-opted as advisor to the new Minister of Economy and Foreign Trade. SAPMO-BArchiv, DL2 VA 1584, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Bericht über C.Nahas, 13 September 1967, Gerlach; PA AA B36 IB4 253, Telegramm, Damascus, 14 December 1966, Vorndran; H-D. Winter, former ambassador of the GDR in Syria, interview with the author, Berlin, 28 January 2006; D. Hido, former Director at at the Ministry of Economy and Foreign Trade, interview with the author, Damascus, 22 August 2006.

[52] Batatu, Syria's Peasantry, 191, 204; Seale, Asad. The Struggle for the Middle East, 142, 169; I. al Zaim, former Minister of Industry, interview with the author, Damascus, 24 September 2006; A. al Ahmar, Assistant Secretary of the Ba'th Party, National Command, interview with the author, Damascus, 17 August 2006.

[53] For a brief introduction, see Hilane, ‘The Effects on Economic Development in Syria’, 55.

[54] Ramet, The Soviet–Syrian Relationship, 94–99. The attack of October 1973 caught FGR diplomats by total surprise, whereas the GDR was reported to have been given advance notice directly from the Syrian presidency. For discussions among Syrian officers and GDR diplomats, see MfAA/B 1362/75; W. Konshel, former ambassador of the GDR in Syria, interview with the author, Berlin, 25 January 2006.

[55] SAPMO-BArchiv, DL2 376, MAI, Stellvertreter des Ministers, Konzeption für Verhandlungen mit Syrien, 23 April 1970, Kattner; PA AA B66 IIIB6 622, SIBRD Damaskus, Telegramm, 21 January 1971, Mirow; OAPD, Rapport 1970–1971 sur l'économie syrienne, Damascus, 1972, 35, 241; Rapport 1972–1973 sur l'économie syrienne, Damascus, 1974, 30; Perthes, The Political Economy, 49, 207.

[56] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV B2/20 86, Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Gespräch mit Genossen Faysal, Damascus, 11 April 1972, Konschel; OAPD, Rapport 1970–1971 sur l'économie syrienne, Damascus, 1972, 35, 241; Rapport 1972–1973 sur l'économie syrienne, Damascus, 1973, 38, 221; Y. Faysal, former General Secretary of the SCP, interview with the author, Damascus, 7 September 2006.

[57] SAPMO-Barchiv, DL2 VA 7338, Protokolle, Vereinbarungen und Abkommen zwichen DDR und SAR, 1965-1988; H-D. Winter, former ambassador of the GDR in Syria, interview with the author, Berlin, 28 January 2006; Frank, ‘The Socialist States’, 12.

[58] Batatu, The Old Social Classes, 104. See also Tripp, A History of Iraq.

[59] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 815, Generalkonsulat Bagdad, Bericht. Die Feuergefechte in Bagdad, 3 August 1963, Hochmuth; DY30 IV A2/20 815, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Resolution des Plenums der Zk der IKP, 20 January 1965, Jaeschke.

[60] SAPMO-BArchiv, DL2 VAN23, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Bericht. Die valuta –und Finanzlage des Irak, 1964–1969, 5 February 1970; Kingston, Britain, 94,

[61] Alnasrawi, Financing, 35, 151.

[62] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 820, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Information. Die Tätigkeit der BRD in Irak, 12 February 1965, Jaeschke; AAPD, 1968, I, 167, Botschafter z.b.V. Böker, z.Z. Bagdad, an Staatssekretär Duckwitz, 17 May 1968.

[63] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY30 A2/20 815, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Bericht. Die Tätigkeit der Ba'th Partei in der irakischen Armee, 9 November 1968, Jaeschke; DY30 A2/20 813, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Gesprächnotiz mit Genossen des irakischen Gewerkschaftsbundes, 7 May 1970, Hähnel; Tripp, ‘The Foreign Policy of Iraq’, 171.

[64] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY30 A2/20 871, 3.AEA, Konzeption für Verhandlungen für die diplomatische Anerkennung in arabischen Ländern, Berlin, 13 August 1969; Gray, Germany's Cold War, 213.

[65] SAPMO-Barchiv, DL2 VA1848, Jahresanalysen 1969–1974. See also Smolansky, The USSR and Iraq, 167.

[66] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 820, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Jahresanalyse 1964, 9 January 1965, Jaeschke; DL2 VA 1846, Konzeption, ‘Langfristige Sicherung des Bezuges von Erdöl durch die Aufnahme erdölgeologischer Arbeiten in der Republik Irak’, 18 March 1969, Kattner; DC20 16888, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Jahresanalyse 1974, Schurath; H-D. Winter, former ambassador of the GDR in Syria, interview with the author, Berlin, 28 January 2006.

[67] Unfortunately, power politics prevented economic diversification and stressed the rent-features of an oil-based economy, whose dependence on world market increased rather than declined. See Tripp, ‘The Foreign Policy of Iraq’, 178, 182; Amin, Irak et Syrie, 103.

[68] SAPMO-BArchiv, DL VA920, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Jahresbericht 1970, 20 December 1970, Weitz; Amin, Irak et Syrie, 54.

[69] MfAA/C 171/70, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Bericht. Die Entsendung irakische Studenten in die DDR, 13 December 1968, Weitz; MfAA/B 1232/75, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Bericht. Die syrische Studenten in der DDR, 13 December 1973, Krieger; DL2 VA7288, WTZ-Abkommen mit Irak 1 October 1968; Hilane, Culture et Développement en Syrie, 245, 285, 319; Kingston, Britain, 32, 98.

[70] S. al Taqi, Director of the as sharq Center, interview with the author, Damascus, 15 September 2006; O. al Bizri, former Director fo the Technology Department at ECSWA, interview with the author, Beirut, 15 September 2006; M. al Imady, former Minister of Economy and Foreign Trade, interview with the author, Damascus, 3 July 2006; S. Seifan, private consultant, interview with the author, Damascus, 24 July 2006; H. al Attar, Director of the Department for International Relations with Europe, State Planning Commission, interview with the author, Damascus, 20 July 2006.

[71] SAPMO-BArchiv, DL2 376, Politbüro des Zk der SED, Konzeption, Berlin, 18 October 1964; DY 30 IV A 2/20 814, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Bericht. Die ehemalige irakische Studenten in der DDR, 10 February 1969, Weitz; Schulz, Development Policy, 226.

[72] R. Hilane, former advisor for the Council of Ministers, interview with the author, 21 September 2006; A. al Ahmar, Assistant Secretary of the Ba'th Party National Command, interview with the author, Damascus, 17 August 2006; Samarbakhsh, Socialisme en Irak, 68, 143.

[73] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 A2/20 876, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Bericht. Die Verhandlungen zwischen der SKP und der Ba'th Partei, 7 May 1968, Grunert; DY30 A2/20 816, Bericht. Die Verhandlungen für den Aufbau einer nationalen fortschrittlichen Front, Bagdad, 2 April 1970, Weitz; PA AA B36 IB4 53, Botschaft BRD Damaskus, Bericht. Die Tätigkeit der syrischen kommunistischen Partei, 12 November 1963, Mangold; Devlin, The Ba'th Party, 63; Seale, The Struggle for Syria, 41, 151.

[74] Y. Garro, Head of the International Department of the SCP, interviews with the author, Damascus, 1 October 2003 and 10 June 2005; D. Hido, former Director at at the Ministry of Economy and Foreign Trade, interview with the author, Damascus, 27 June 2005.

[75] As early as the beginning of the nineteenth century German instructors and advisors had been sent to Istanbul to train many Turkish and Arab Ottoman officials, who were later involved in nationalist movements. MfAA/C 500/73, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Bericht. Die politische Richtungen in der syrischen Armee, 3 June 1968, Grunert; AAPD, 1970, II, 372, Bundesminister Scheel an Bundesminister Schmidt, 20 November 1969; AAPD, 1972, I, 35, Aufzeichnung des Bundesminister Scheel, 21 February 1972; Herf, Divided Memories, 292, 338. See SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20, 371–387, 100–108 and the excellent B. Tibi, 123–154.

[76] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY30 A2/20 876, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Bericht. Die Politik der Ba'th Partei in den syrischen Massenorganisationen, 7 May 1968, Grunert; Sapmo-Barchiv, DY 30 IV A2/20 871, Botschaft der DDR Damaskus, Bericht über eines Gespräch mit M. Amin, Mitglied der regionalen Führung der Bath Partei, 17 November 1969, Scharf; Devlin, The Baa'th Party, 211, 281.

[77] MfAA/B 1388/75, Konsulat DDR Damaskus, Telegramm, 8 March 1965, Gaile; SAPMO-BArchiv, DY34 7983, Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen des Zk der FDGB, Abschlussbericht. Die Reise der Delegation des FDGB nach Lebanon, Jordanien und Syrien, 17 February 1967, Köhler; PAAA B36 IB4 202, Botschaft BRD Damaskus, Bericht. Die Ausbildung des syrischen Bauernverdandes, 4 February 1965, Pfeiffer. For the relations among the GDR and Syrian Youth organizations, see Sapmo-Barchiv, Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen der FDJ, DY 24 6.829, 10.440, 10.447, 10.450. A. al Ahmar, Assistant Secretary of the Ba'th Party National Command, interview with the author, Damascus, 17 August 2006. , Political Recruitment and Socialization in Syria: The Case of the Revolutionary Youth Federation, 143–174. For the relations between Trade Unions, see also Abteilung Internationale Verbindung der FDGB, Sapmo-Barchiv, DY 34, DY 34 4173, 7959, 7963, 7965, 7974, 7976, 7983, 14028, 14194, 14195. See also, the excellent Golan, ‘The Vanguard Party’. See Hinnebusch, ‘Political Recruitment and Socialization in Syria’.

[78] For the relations between the SED and the SCP, see SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 A2/20 332, 371, 868–887. For the relations between the SED and the ICP, see SAPMO-BArchiv, DY30 A2/20 87, 813–815. For the exchange of delegations between the SED and the Syrian Ba'th Party, see SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 A2/20 381, 871–876.

[79] MfAA/C 1388/75, Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Telegramm, 21 October 1973, Konschel. See also, MfAA/B 489/73, Jahresbericht 1967, Grunert, and Jahresbericht 1973, Konschel; Seale, Assad, 250, 316, 421; Samarbakhsh, Socialisme en Irak, 143, 174.

[80] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 A2/20 876, Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Gespräch mit sowjetischem Botschaft Mukhtidinow, 1 December 1970, Marter; DY 30 B 2/20 86, Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen beim Zk der SED, Aufzeichnung. Die Politik der KP Syriens, 21 August 1972, Marter.

[81] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 875, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Bericht. Letzte Entwicklungen der Politik der Ba'th Partei, 15 December 1967, Scharf; DY 30 IV A 2/20 876, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Aufzeichnung. Die politische Richtungen in der Ba'th Partei, 13 July 1970, Scharf; DY B 2/20 86, Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Abschluss des Generalsekretariats der SKP, 24 April 1974, Konschel; Y. Faysal, former General Secretary of the SCP-Faysal, interview with the author, Damascus 7 September 2006; D. Hido, former Director at the Ministry of Economy and Foreign Trade, interview with the author, Damascus, 22 August 2006; J. Abdel-Nour, Regional Secretary of the SCP, Aleppo 20 September 2006.

[82] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 876, Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Telegramm, 9 July 1970, Marter; DY 30 IV A 2/20 86, Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen beim Zk der SED, Information. Die Spannung in der SKP, Berlin, 11 February 1972, Marter; Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen beim Zk der SED, Information. Politische Spaltung in der SKP, 20 June 1974, Reichardt.

[83] N. Khoury, Director of Planning Institute for Economic and Social Development, interview with the author, Damascus, 2 July 2006; S. Seifan, private consultant, interview with the author, Damascus, 21 July 2006; V. Perthes, The Political Economy, 120, 139, 161; Hinnebush, Syria. Revolution from Above, 65, 89.

[84] H-D. Winter, former ambassador of the GDR in Syria, interview with the author, 28 January 2006; A. Bakhdash, General-Secretary of the SCP, interview with the author, 2 September 2006.

[85] D. Hido, former Director at at the Ministry of Economy and Foreign Trade, interview with the author, Damascus, 22 August 2006; M. al Imady, former Minister of Economy, interview with the author, Damascus, 3 July 2006; Perthes, The Political Economy, 133.

[86] MfAA/C 7662, Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Bericht. Der Machtkampf in der Ba'th Partei, 22 September 1970, Marter; SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 870, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Gespräch mit dem sowjetischen Botschaft, 12 March 1969, Grunert; DY 30 IV A 2/20 876, Botschaft DDR Damaskus, Aufzeichnung. Die politische Entwicklungen in Syrien, 20 January 1971, Marter; H-D. Winter, former ambassador of the GDR in Syria, interview with the author, 28 January 2006.

[87] OAPD, La planification économique, 16, 40, OAPD, Etudes sur le secteur public industriel en SAR, 15, 62; PA AA B36 IB4 330, SIBRD Damaskus, Telegramm, 20 November 1970, Schwartze; Sapmo-Barchiv, DY 30 A2/20 876, Generalkonsulat DDR Damaskus, Internes Materiel des GK, Damascus, 8 October 1968, Grunert; A. al Ahmar, Assistant Secretary of the Ba'th Party National Command, interview with the author, Damascus, 17 August 2006; R. Hilane, former advisor of the Council of Ministers, interview with the author, Damascus, 21 September 2006; Perthes, The Political Economy, 23, 180.

[88] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 816, Sekretariat des Zk der SED, Bericht. Die Reise der Regierungsdelegation in Irak, 15 May 1969, Krause; DL2 1225, Jahresanalyse Irak 1970, 10 Febrary 1970, Fritze; DL2 VAN23, Zustand und Perspetikiven der WTZ DDR-Irak, 14 January 1971, Roehl; DC20 16888, Ministerrat DDR, Aufzeichnung. Die Beziehungen mit Irak, 21 may 1975. For the economic policy of Ba'thist Iraq, see also Hussein, On Social and Foreign Affairs, 33, 63.

[89] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 815, Handelsvertretung DDR Bagdad, Bericht. Unruhen in Mosul, 28 April 1959, Schmeisser; Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen beim Zk der SED, Information. Die Repression gegen die KP in Irak, 12 January 1969, Worch; DY 30 IV A 2/20 820, Botschaft DDR Baghdad, Telegramm, Baghdad, 17 April 1970, Weitz; DY 30 A2/20 819, Botschaft DDR Baghdad, Information. Die Repression gegen die KP, Bagdad, 18 February 1971, Weitz. See Samarbakhsh, Socialisme en Irak, 149–155.

[90] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 815, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Bericht. Die Politik der Ba'th Partei gegenüber die KP Iraks und die kurdische Bewegung, 10 November 1968, Jaeschke; Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen beim Zk der SED, Bericht. Die Verhandlungen für den Aufbau einer nationalen fortschrittlichen Front, 4 May 1970; DY 30 IV A 2/20 87, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Information. Die politische Richtung der KDP, 21 January 1974, Schurath; DY 30 A2/20 819, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Gespräch mit Vorsitzender der PUK Partei Talabani, 28 April 1970, Fichter. See the excellent Bozarslan, La Question kurde, 170.

[91] For the exchange between the SED and the Iraqi Ba'th Party, see SAPMO-BArchiv; DY 30 A2/20 87, 816, 819–822.

[92] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 87, Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen beim Zk der SED, Bericht. Die Vereinbarung zwischen UdSSR und Irak, 28 April 1972; Smolansky, The USSR and Iraq, 124.

[93] In addition to his nationalist claims, sheyk Barzani had the backing of the Shah of Iran, the United States and Israel, all of whom were worried about Iraqi ambitions, SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 A2/20 817, Generalkonsulat DDR Bagdad, Bericht. Die Forderungen der KDP, 23 June 1963, Hochmuth; DY 30 IV A 2/20 87, Botschaft DDR Bagdad, Bericht. Die politische Linie der KDP, 14 August 1970, Weitz; Abt.Int.Verb. beim Zk der SED, Information. Die Politik der Ba'th Partei gegenüber die IKP, 17 July 1977, Schurath; F.M. Slugett, 126.

[94] SAPMO-BArchiv, DY 30 IV A 2/20 87, Abteilung Internationale Verbindungen beim Zk der SED, Konzeption. Die Zusammenarbeit mit irakischer Ba'th Partei, 12 April 1979; Winter, Konfliktregion, 14.

[95] See Arrighi, The Long Twentieth Century, 391; Hinnebush, The International Politics of the Middle East, 78, 181.