Neutrality in the early Cold War: Swiss arms imports and neutrality

Abstract

The aim of this article is to assess the sustainability of neutrality in the early Cold War. This issue is examined through the study of Switzerland's armament policy. The Swiss were able to maintain their status of a permanent neutral after the Second World War, and thus succeeded in upholding a centuries-long policy. Their armed neutrality, however, required modern weaponry. In search of this material Switzerland turned to the West, while refusing to purchase weapons from the East. The paper argues that Switzerland's self-imposed policy of armed neutrality increased Swiss dependence on western armaments, and thereby endangered its neutrality status and policy.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Professors Nigel Ashton and Neville Wylie for their comments on earlier drafts of this article. My thanks go also to the anonymous reviewers for their useful comments.

Notes

Marco Wyss is a Researcher at the Center for Security Studies, ETH Zurich. He is completing a doctoral thesis at the Universities of Nottingham and Neuchâtel about Anglo-Swiss relations during the early Cold War, in which he assesses the role of neutrality, great power status and arms transfers.

  [1] Swiss Federal Archives (hereafter SFA), E 2001(E), 1972/33, Bd. 5, Notiz für den Departementschef Eventualität eines Kriegsmaterialangebots durch Sowjetrussland, Bindschedler, 5 November 1957.

  [2] Hakovirta, East–West Conflict, 47–8.

  [3] For Finland's neutrality during the Cold War see Häikiö, ‘Finland's Neutrality’; and for Finland during the Cold War more generally see Majander, ‘Post-Cold War’; Ruddy, Charting an Independent Course.

  [4] Rentola, ‘From Half-Adversary’.

  [5] Hanhimäki, Containing Coexistence, 105, 110.

  [6] Riklin, ‘Die Neutralität der Schweiz’, 196–9.

  [7] Schaub, Neutralität und kollektive Sicherheit, 36–8.

  [8] Hanhimäki, ‘The First Line of Defence’, 388–9; Hanhimäki, Containing Coexistence, 110.

  [9] Hanhimäki, Scandinavia and the United States, 9.

 [10] Silva, Keep Them Strong, 1.

 [11] Lundestad, America, Scandinavia. For a historiographical account of Sweden during the Cold War see Bjerfeld, ‘Cold War’.

 [12] For a historiographical account of Switzerland during the Cold War see Wenger and Nuenlist, ‘A “Special Case”’.

 [13] Neutrality Policy Commission, Had There Been a War.

 [14] Cole, Neutralité du jour, 338–67.

 [15] See Aunesluoma, Britain, Sweden and the Cold War, passim.

 [16] Karlsson, ‘Neutrality and Economy’, 41–2; Nilsson, Tools of Hegemony, 116–73.

 [17] Nilsson, Tools of Hegemony, passim, 145, 379–80.

 [18] Silva, Charles, Keep Them Strong, 330–32.

 [19] Moores, ‘“Neutral on our Side”’.

 [20] Nilsson, Tools of Hegemony, passim, 407.

 [21] Swiss Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

 [22] While the engines were bought in the United Kingdom, the airframe was produced under licence in Switzerland.

 [23] ‘Transfers of major conventional weapons from the UK to Switzerland between 1950 and 1958’, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Arms Transfers Database (SIPRI Arms Transfers Database hereafter), http://armstrade.sipri.org/arms_trade/trade_register.php (accessed 5 September 2009). In the above-mentioned numbers the 75 finished Vampire aircraft delivered before 1950 are also included.

 [24] ‘Transfers of major conventional weapons from the UK to the world between 1950 and 1958’, SIPRI Arms Transfers Database, http://armstrade.sipri.org/arms_trade/trade_register.php (accessed 23 September 2009).

 [25] Here I am referring to what has been called Vorwirkungen der Neutralität im Frieden by Swiss specialists on the law of neutrality. See Schindler, ‘Die Lehre’.

 [26] Hakovirta, East–West Conflict, 26–7.

 [27] I would like to mention that when I refer to a certain ‘paradox’ with regard to armed neutrality, I borrow the concept from Mikael Nilsson, who has used it in a scholarly presentation at the Swiss Historical Congress in Basle: Mikael Nilsson, ‘The Armed Neutrality Paradox: Sweden's Dependence on U.S. Military Technology and Arms Transfer during the Cold War’, ‘Armes sans frontières?’ L'armement des pays neutres durant la Guerre froide, Swiss Historical Congress, 6 February 2010.

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 [37] On Swedish neutrality during the Cold War see Aunesluoma, Britain, Sweden and the Cold War; and Nilsson, Tools of Hegemony.

 [38] On US–Swiss relations during the Cold War see the Traverse special issue Schaufelbuehl and König, Schweiz – USA im kalten Krieg.

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 [40] Cronin, Great Power Politics, 151–3. See also Bischof, Austria in the First Cold War; Gehler, ‘From Non-alignment to Neutrality’.

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 [44] Zala, ‘Governmental Malaise’.

 [45] Fleury, ‘De la neutralité “fictive”’, 5–7; On the evolution of Switzerland's neutrality policy during the post-war years see among others Möckli, Neutralität, Solidarität, Sonderfall.

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 [59] The National Archives, Kew (hereafter TNA), FO 192/216, Scrivener (British Legation Berne (Berne)) to Bevin (Foreign Office (FO)), 20 December 1950. See also Mantovani, Schweizerische Sicherheitspolitik, 63–4.

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 [61] Wylie, Britain, Switzerland, 20–22, 65–6; For a general account on Anglo-Swiss relations see Wylie, ‘Grossbritannien, 3’.

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 [63] Documents on British Policy Overseas (hereafter DBPO), Series I, Vol. I, 52, Kerr (British Legation Moscow) to Eden (FO), 8 July 1945.

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 [67] Mantovani, ‘Another “Special Relationship”’.

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 [72] Engel, Cold War at 30,000 Feet, passim.

 [73] TNA, AVIA 15/2244, Haynes (Ministry of Supply (MoS)) to Skevington (Board of Trade, BoT), 14 August 1945.

 [74] Wyss, ‘Des Vampires pour la Suisse’.

 [75] TNA, DEFE 10/196, Supply of Arms and Equipment to the Armed Forces of Other Countries – Strategic Implications, Joint Planning Staff (JPS), 24 April 1947.

 [76] TNA, PREM 8/1399, Ministry of Defence (MoD) to Attlee, 23 January 1948.

 [77] TNA, DEFE 10/196, JPS to Chiefs of Staff (CoS), 25 March 1948.

 [78] TNA, FO 371/79848, Shuckburgh (FO) to Willis (United States Embassy London), 11 March 1949.

 [79] TNA, FO 371/89125–6, Various documents on the question of delivery of Goblin jet engines to Switzerland; TNA, PREM 8/1399, Export of Arms and Equipment, Report by the Arms Working Party, 21 October 1950; DO(50)90, 25 October 1950.

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 [81] SFA, E 27, -/9001, 18505, Bd.1, Introduction des blindés, Mémorandum, de Muralt, 15 September 1950.

 [82] Soutou, ‘La IV^e République’, 86; See also Braun, Der Schweizerische Generalstab, 275–9.

 [83] SFA, E 9500.52(-), 1984/122, Bd. 4, Protokoll der Sitzung der Landesverteidigungskommission, 28 November 1955.

 [84] SFA, E 5001(F), 1970/6, Bd. 8, Protokoll der 35. Sitzung der Kommission für militärische Flugzeugbeschaffung, 20 June 1957.

 [85] SFA, E 27, -/9001, 17971, Von Wattenwyl (MTS) to Trade Section (Federal Department of Public Economy (FDPE)), 26 February 1945.

 [86] National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (hereafter NARA), RG 59, Central Decimal File (hereafter CDF) 1945-49, 854.20–25, Bruggmann (Swiss Legation Washington (Washington)) to Byrnes (Department of State (DoS)), 4 June 1945.

 [87] TNA, CAB 122/919, Halifax (British Embassy Washington (Washington)) to FO, 14 July 1945.

 [88] Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter FRUS), Vol. I, 1149–50, Report by the Subcommittee on Rearmament to the State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee, 21 March 1946 (emphasis added).

 [89] NARA, RG 59, CDF 1945-1949, 954.20–25, Grässli (Swiss Legation Washington (Washington)) to Acheson (Department of State (DoS)), 6 March 1947; Kittredge (Division of Western European Affairs (WE)) to Pomeroy (Munitions Division (MD)), 7 March 1947.

 [90] NARA, RG 335, Entry 41, Box 26, P-51 Aircraft for Switzerland, Memorandum by the State Member, SWNCC, 7 May 1947.

 [91] NARA, RG 335, Entry 41, Box 26, Memorandum for Mr. Petersen, P-51 Aircraft for Switzerland, AGP (Department of War (DoW)), 16 June 1947; Memorandum for the Assistant Secretary of War, P-51 Aircraft for Switzerland, Sparrow (DoW), 13 May 1947; P-51 Aircraft for Switzerland, Memorandum by the Navy Member, SWNCC, 26 May 1947; NARA RG 335, Entry 38, Box 1, Minutes of the 57th Meeting of the State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee, 20 May 1947.

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 [93] NARA, RG 335, Entry 41, Box 26, State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee, Decision Amending SWNCC 367, P-51 Aircraft for Switzerland, Note by the Secretaries, 2 July 1947.

 [94] This committee succeeded SWNCC after the creation of an independent United States Air Force.

 [95] FRUS, 1949, Vol. I, 263, Report by the SANACC Subcommittee for Rearmament Military Aid Problems, 18 August 1948.

 [96] FRUS, 1950, Vol. III, 1586, Policy Statement Prepared in the Department of State, Switzerland, 17 August 1950.

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[100] NARA, RG 59, CDF 1950–54, 745.5, Memorandum of Conversation, Swiss desire to purchase US tanks, Perkins (EUR), 23 December 1950.

[101] NARA, RG 330, Entry 18, General and Project Decimal File, April 1949–May 1953, Box 77, Memorandum for Frank C. Nash, Swiss Requests for Procurement Assistance, Olmsted (Office of Military Assistance, Office of the Secretary of Defense (OMA, OSD)), 5 September 1951.

[102] FRUS, 1951, Vol. IV, 874–9, The Position of the United States With Respect to Switzerland, Draft Statement of Policy by the Department of State, 7 November 1951.

[103] FRUS, 1951, Vol. IV, 880–86, NSC-119, Draft Statement of Policy by the National Security Council, 20 November 1951?; NSC-119, National Security Council Staff Study, The Position of the United States With Respect to Switzerland, 20 November 1951?

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[105] NARA, RG 218, Entry 25, Geographic File, 1957, Box 16, The Position of the United States with Respect to Switzerland, Memorandum by the Chief of Staff US Army, 3 December 1951; Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, The Position of the United States with Respect to Switzerland, Bradley (JCS), 4 December 1951.

[106] NARA, RG 59, CDF 1950–54, 745.5, Memorandum of Conversation, Advising Swiss Government of Its Eligibility under MDA, Vance (WE), 9 January 1952; Aide-Mémoire, Bonbright (EUR) to Bruggmann (Washington), 9 January 1952.

[107] Mauro Mantovani has argued that Washington's policy shift was caused by the Federal Council's approval of the sale of large quantities of Oerlikon-Bührle rockets (Mantovani, Schweizerische Sicherheitspolitik, 137–8).

[108] ‘Transfers of Major Conventional Weapons from the United States to Switzerland between 1950 and 1960’, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Arms Transfers Database, http://armstrade.sipri.org/arms_trade/trade_register.php (accessed 19 April 2010).

[109] Braun, Der Schweizerische Generalstab, 244.

[110] SFA, E 2001(E), 1969/121, Bd. 2, Von Wattenwyl (MTS) to Flückiger (Swiss Legation Moscow (Moscow)), 25 February 1948.

[111] SFA, E 2001(E), 1969/121, Bd. 2, Flückiger (Moscow) to Petitpierre (Federal Political Department (FPD)), 7 April 1948.

[112] SFA, E 2001(E), 1969/121, Bd. 2, De Rahm (FPD) to Moscow, 23 April 1948.

[113] SFA, E 2001(E), 1969/121, Bd. 2, De Rahm (FPD) to MTS, 23 April 1948.

[114] SFA, E 27, -/9001, 18505, Bd. 1, De Muralt to de Montmollin (both FMD), 30 May 1950.

[115] SFA, E 27, -/9001, 18505, Bd. 1, De Montmollin to Kobelt (both FMD), 9 June 1950.

[116] SFA, E 2001(E), 1972/33, Bd. 5, Kobelt (FMD) to Petitpierre (FPD), 12 June 1950.

[117] SFA, E 2001(E), 1972/33, Bd. 5, Petitpierre (FPD) to Kobelt (FMD), 23 June 1950.

[118] SFA, E 5001(F), 1968/100, Bd. 97, Aktennotiz Besuch von Oberst Philipp Vacano, von Wattenwyl, 30 January 1956.

[119] SFA, E 5560(C), 1975/46, Bd. 276, Von Wattenwyl (MTS) to de Montmollin (FMD), 30 January 1956.

[120] SFA, E 5560(C), 1975/46, Bd. 276, De Montmollin to Kobelt (both FMD), 2 February 1956.

[121] SFA, E 5001(F), 1968/100, Bd. 97, Petitpierre (FPD) to Chaudet (FMD), 8 March 1956.

[122] SFA, E 5001(F), 1968/100, Bd. 97, Von Wattenwyl (MTS) to de Montmollin (FMD), 4 April 1956.

[123] Kommission für militärische Flugzeugbeschaffung.

[124] Swiss Diplomatic Documents (hereafter SDD), dodis.ch/13014, http://www.dodis.bar.admin.ch/dodis/dodis, Chaudet (FMD) to Federal Council, 14 June 1956.

[125] SDD, dodis.ch/13015, http://www.dodis.bar.admin.ch/dodis/dodis, Co-Rapport concernant la proposition du Département militaire du 14 juin 1956 quant aux commentaires sur l'achat de Mig 15 en Tchécoslovaquie, Petitpierre, 16 June 1956.

[126] SFA, E 2001(E), 1972/33, Bd. 5, Fischli to Petitpierre (both FPD), 18 October 1957.

[127] SFA, E 2001(E), 1979/28, Bd. 1, Petitpierre to Fischli (both FPD), 21 October 1957.

[128] SFA, E 2001(E), 1972/33, Bd. 5, Notiz für den Departementschef Eventualität eines Kriegsmaterialangebots durch Sowjetrussland, Bindschedler, 5 November 1957.

[129] SFA, E 2001(E), 1979/28, Bd. 1, Petitpierre (FPD) to Federal Council, 25 November 1957.

[130] SFA, E 5560(C), 1975/46, Bd. 62, De Montmollin to Kobelt (both FMD), 30 December 1957.

[131] Nilsson, Tools of Hegemony.

[132] Pierre, The Global Politics, 3.

[133] Riklin, ‘Die Neutralität der Schweiz’, 196. For a detailed legal analysis see Schaller, Schweizer Neutralität, 178–200.