Voices, letters, and literature through the Iron Curtain: exiles and the (trans)mission of radio in the Cold War

1 The title refers to Allan A. Mitchie, Voices through the Iron Curtain. The Radio Free Europe Story (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company 1963), 63. I would like to thank Ilse Lazaroms for her valuable editing work as well as the two anonymous reviewers of Cold War History, whose comments have helped me to improve the article's coherence and overall argument.

Abstract

The article investigates the role of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty as a crucial junction of cross-Iron Curtain communication throughout the Cold War. It explores how the radio stations turned into both real as well as imaginary targets of letters, underground literature, and private phone calls from the ‘Other Europe’. After outlining the radios' mission in the early 1950s, the article concentrates on the practical as well as the symbolic employability of exiles. This will help further the understanding of the central role of exiles in closing gaps between the radio stations' mission and their actual transmission. By reestablishing means of real cross-border communication, exiles turned into the key players of this ‘Cold War of the ether’.

Acknowledgements

I would particularly like to thank Linda Risso for her initiative, support and helpful comments. I would equally like to warmly thank Ilse Lazaroms for her careful correction of the article.

Notes

Friederike Kind-Kovács is an Assistant Professor at the Chair of Southeast and East European History at Regensburg University. Correspondence to: [email protected]

1 The title refers to Allan A. Mitchie, Voices through the Iron Curtain. The Radio Free Europe Story (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company 1963), 63. I would like to thank Ilse Lazaroms for her valuable editing work as well as the two anonymous reviewers of Cold War History, whose comments have helped me to improve the article's coherence and overall argument.

2 Archival material was collected at the Hoover Institution Archives (HIA) in Stanford, the Open Society Archives (OSA) in Budapest and the National Archives at College Park (NACP), College Park, MD in Washington. Insofar as the material used in this article has been collected by the radios, it mostly reflects their perspective, that of their employees, and their targeted audiences.

3 HU OSA 300–6–1, Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department, Administrative Files, 1956–1994, Questionnaires, Container nr. 9, Sheet 1–3, Sheet 1. ‘Engineer Believes Cooperation Between Various Emigrations Will aid RL's Image’.

4 HU OSA 300–6–1, Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department, Administrative Files, 1956–1994, Questionnaires, Container nr. 9, Sheet 1–3, Sheet 1. ‘Engineer Believes Cooperation Between Various Emigrations Will aid RL's Image’

5 HU OSA 300–6–1, Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department, Administrative Files, 1956–1994, Questionnaires, Container nr. 9, Sheet 1–3, Sheet 1. ‘Engineer Believes Cooperation Between Various Emigrations Will aid RL's Image’

6 HU OSA 300–6–1, Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department, Administrative Files, 1956–1994, Questionnaires, Container nr. 9, Sheet 1–3, Sheet 1. ‘Engineer Believes Cooperation Between Various Emigrations Will aid RL's Image’

7 HU OSA 300–6–1, Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department, Administrative Files, 1956–1994, Questionnaires, Container nr. 9, Sheet 1–3, Sheet 1. ‘Engineer Believes Cooperation Between Various Emigrations Will aid RL's Image’

8 HU OSA 300–6–1. Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department. Administrative Files, 1956–1994, Questionnaires 1960–1966. Special Panel Program Reviews 1964, Box 9, Sheet 1–2, Sheet 2. ‘RL Listener Recounts Teen-Age Dissident Activities. 29^th October 1976’.

9 Steven Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore: John Hopkins University, 1996). For a recent discussion on the politicisation of culture in the European Cold War, see Annette Vowinckel, Marcus M. Payk, and Thomas Lindenberger, ‘Introduction: European Cold War Culture(s)’, in Cold War Cultures: Perspectives on Eastern and Western European societies,ed. Idem (New York: Berghahn Books, 2012), 1–22.

10 David Caute, The Dancer Defects. The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy During the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 3–4.

11 For helpful introductions to the radios see Stig Mickelson, America's Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (New York: Praeger, 1983); Michael Nelson, War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997); James Critchlow, Radio Hole-in the-Head: An Insider's Story of Cold War Broadcasting (Washington, DC: American University Press, 1995); Gene Sosin, Sparks of Liberty: An Insider's Memoir of Radio Liberty (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999).

12 Thomas Lindenberger, ‘Geteilte Welt, geteilter Himmel? Der Kalte Krieg und die Massenmedien in gesellschaftsgeschichtlicher Perspektive’, in Zwischen Pop und Propaganda. Radio in der DDR, eds. Klaus Arnold and Christoph Classen (Berlin: Christopher Links Verlag, 2004), 27–46.

13 For a good introduction to early US propaganda, see: Andrew L. Yarrow, ‘Selling a New Vision of America to the World: Changing Messages in Early U.S. Cold War Print Propaganda’, in Journal of Cold War Studies 11 (2009), 3–45.

14 Stephen S. Rosenfeld, ‘A New Rationale for “Free” Radios: Echoes of Cold War’, in The Washington Post, 11 June 1971, A 24.

15 The article which has most shaped my approach to radio listening is:Stephen Lovell, ‘How Russia Learned to Listen’, Kritika 12 (2011), 591–615.

16 Recently a number of works have been dealing with culture during the Cold War and cross-border communication: Sari Atuio-Sarasmo and Brendan Humphreys, eds., Winter Kept us Warm: Cold War Interactions Reconsidered (Helsinki: Aleksanteri Cold War Series 1, 2010); Patrick Major and Rana Mitter, Across the Blocs: Cold War Cultural and Social History, (London: Routledge, 2004); Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1944–1961 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997); Caute, The Dancer Defects; Yale Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003).

17 ‘Organizing Political Warfare’, 30 April 1948. Published Online in the Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Collection. Cold War International History Project. Digital Archive. http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/va2/docs/doc01_19480430.pdf [last accessed on 20 April 2012].

18 Mitchie, Voices through the Iron Curtain, 63.

19 The attitude towards Munich and Germany was much dependent on the refugees' political orientation and their experiences during World War II. Hungarian refugees from the very early years were often rather conservative or even right-wing oriented, and therefore perceived their arrival in West Germany, and in Munich, as liberation from the Russians. Some of the Czech, Polish and Russian refugees might have had more trouble with coming to terms with their still quite recent memories of German occupation or German military presence. Yet, it would be really worth studying the early corporate records of the radio stations to see to what extent their location in former Nazi Germany was critically discussed by the founders.

20 The geographic proximity was for instance also used for sending balloons filled with propaganda leaflets across the Iron Curtain, which was perceived as one of the ‘many ingenious ways to part the Iron Curtain’. See on this: http://www.psywarrior.com/RadioFreeEurope.html [last accessed 23 September 2012].

21 For an early analysis of foreign broadcasting in the USSR see Ludmilla Alexeyeva, U.S. broadcasting to the Soviet Union (New York, Washington: U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee, 1986).

22 In 1949, the NCFE, later the FEC, was established by the Truman administration and served as the head organisation of various Free Europe programmes. It was funded until 1971 through the US Congress, more specifically the CIA.

23 Robert T. Holt, Radio Free Europe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1958), 9.

24 NACP, College Park, MD, RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. RFE/RL Portions of March 18 Report to Assessment of RFE-1964, Box. 1. ‘Free Europe: Certification of Incorporation and By-Laws as amended to November 1^st 1963’.

25 James T. Howard, ‘200 Exiles hammer by Radio at the Iron Curtain’, in The Washington Post, 17 September 1950, B2.

26 Rudolf L. Tőkés, ‘Human Rights and Political Change in eastern Europe’, in Opposition in Eastern Europe, ed. Idem (Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, 1979), 1–25.

27 See Cissie Dore Hill, ‘Voices of Hope. The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty,’ Hoover Digest 4 (2001). Online at http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/3475896.html ([last accessed 12 September 2012]. See also Arch Puddington, Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 12.

28 Hoover Institution Archives (HIA), RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organization and Publications 1951–59, Box 197, Folder 6, Sheet 1. ‘Advisory Group Survey of FE Proposed Agency’, 17 April 1958.

29 Hoover Institution Archives (HIA), RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organization and Publications 1951–59, Box 197, Folder 6, Sheet 1. ‘Advisory Group Survey of FE Proposed Agency’, 17 April 1958

30 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications 1951–59, Box 197, Folder 6, Sheet 1–10, Sheet 1. ‘East European Operations’, FEP Operations, 16 May 1958.

31 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Publications Development Operations Reports 1960 Jan-June, Box 262, Folder 6, Sheet 1–7, Sheet 1. ‘Polonia Book Fund Ltd., Person-to-Person Program, Monthly Report for June 1960’.

32 Holt, Radio Free Europe, 97.

33 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Publications and Special Projects Division, East-West Contacts 1960–68, Box 258, Folder 10, Sheet 1–9, Sheet 2. ‘Policy and Planning Statement on Exile, Émigré and Ethnic Group Relations with the East European Regimes and People and with FEC Programs’,

34 See on this the most recent article by Simo Mikkonen, ‘Exploiting the Exiles. Soviet Émigrés in U.S. Cold War Strategy’, in Journal of Cold War Studies 14 (2012), 98–127, 106.

35 Jack Raymond, ‘Radio Free Europe Spurring Escapes’ in New York Times, 25 November 1951, 22.

36 Jack Raymond, ‘Radio Free Europe Spurring Escapes’ in New York Times, 25 November 1951, 22

37 “Russians held poorly aided,” in New York Times, 24 October 1951, 11.

38 “Russians held poorly aided,” in New York Times, 24 October 1951 4.

39 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications. Box 197, Folder 8, Sheet 1–14, Sheet 1. ‘Reorientation of Exile Organizations’ 1 April 1960.

40 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications. Box 197, Folder 8, Sheet 1–14, Sheet 1. ‘Reorientation of Exile Organizations’ 1 April 1960

41 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Publications and Special Projects Division, East-West Contacts 1960–68, Box 258, Folder 10, Sheet 1–9, Sheet 2, ‘Policy and Planning Statement on Exile, Émigré and Ethnic Group Relations with the East European Regimes and People and with FEC Programs’.

42 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications, 12, 1960, Box 197, Folder 8, Sheet 1–11, Sheet 3. ‘The New Mission of FEOP in Europe, Policy, Recipient: Minton, Europe Guidance’.

43 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications. Strictly Confidential, April 1, 1960, Box 197, Folder 8, Sheet 1–14, Sheet 13–14. ‘Reorientation of Exile Organizations.’

44 Mitchie, Voices through the Iron Curtain, 63.

45 USG Officials Discuss Émigré Broadcasts to Eastern Europe, 26 August 1948. Published online in the RFE/RL Collection. Cold War International History Project, Digital Archive. http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/va2/index.cfm?topic_id = 1409&fuseaction = HOME.document&identifier = 56E1D276-5056-9700-03BE6AB1D16ECAF2&sort = Collection&item = Radio%20Free%20Europe/Radio%20Liberty [last accessed 20 April 2012].

46 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Publications and Special Projects Division, East-West contacts 1960–68, Box 258, Folder 10, Sheet 1–9, Sheet 3. ‘Policy and Planning Statement on Exile, Émigré and Ethnic Group Relations with the East European Regimes and People and with FEC Programs.’

47 Frank Shakespeare, ‘International Broadcasting and US Political Realities,’ in Western Broadcasting over the Iron Curtain, ed by K.R.M. Short (London & Sydney: Croom Helm, 1986), 57–8, 58.

48 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications, 12, 1960, Box 197, Folder 8, Sheet 1–11, Sheet 9. ‘The New Mission of FEOP in Europe, The Program,’ Recipient: Minton, Europe Guidance'.

49 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications, 12, 1960, Box 197, Folder 8, Sheet 6.

50 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications 1951–59, Box No. 197, Folder 6, Sheet 1–3, Sheet 2. ‘FEP Divisional Policies’, 14 May 1958.

51 No information could yet be gathered on this particular book exchange programme. This is most probably due to the fact that the archives have not yet been declassified and therefore are not yet accessible to researchers.

52 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Eastern Europe Publications Exchange Fund, Inc., Pursuant to the Membership Corporations Law, Box 177, Folder 9, Sheet 1–5, Sheet 2. ‘What It Does.’

53 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications 1951–59, Box No. 197, Folder 6, Sheet 1–3, Sheet 3. ‘FEP Divisional Policies,’ 14 May 1958.

54 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications 1951–59, Box No. 197, Folder 6, Sheets1–2.

55 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications, 12, 1960, Box 197, Folder 8, Sheet 1–11, Sheet 10. ‘The New Mission of FEOP in Europe, The Program,’ Recipient: Minton, Europe Guidance.

56 Holt, Radio Free Europe, 13.

57 ‘The Mission of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty Broadcast,’ reproduced from the Board for International Broadcasting, Eight Annual Report, 1982, reprinted in: William A. Boell, ‘Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in the Mid 1980s,’ in Western Broadcasting Over the Iron Curtain, ed. by K. R. M. Short (London: Croom Helm, 1986), 69–97, 85.

58 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, European Unity, Sheets 1–10, Sheets 2–3, ‘Radio Free Europe Policy Handbook,’ November 30, 1951.

59 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, European Unity, Sheets 1–10, Sheet 3.

60 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, European Unity, Sheets 1–10, 9.

61 National Archives Washington, RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Sheets 1–8, Sheet 7. L.C. Tihany, J.G. Kecskemethy, J. Pauker, ‘Hungarian Program Review Group,’ 6 September 1967, in Hungarian Program Review.

62 Nicolae Jorga (Romanian literary critic and playwright), Tomáš Masaryk (Czech politician and philospher), Béla Bartók (Hungarian composer) and Władysław Reymont (Polish novelist) are presented here as representative intellectuals from Central and Southeastern Europe. Ibid., 10.

63 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, 1–18, Sheet 13. ‘Radio Free Europe Policy Handbook,’ 30 November 1951. Title of a section about ‘Broadcasting to Youth’.

64 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, 1–18, Sheet 13. ‘Radio Free Europe Policy Handbook,’ 30 November 1951. Title of a section about ‘Broadcasting to Youth.’

65 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, 1–18, Sheet 13. ‘Radio Free Europe Policy Handbook,’ 30 November 1951. Title of a section about ‘Broadcasting to Youth.’, Sheet 8.

66 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, 1–18, Sheet 13. ‘Radio Free Europe Policy Handbook,’ 30 November 1951. Title of a section about ‘Broadcasting to Youth.’, Sheet 6.

67 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, 1–18, Sheet 13. ‘Radio Free Europe Policy Handbook,’ 30 November 1951. Title of a section about ‘Broadcasting to Youth.’, Sheet 13.

68 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, 1–18, Sheet 13. ‘Radio Free Europe Policy Handbook,’ 30 November 1951. Title of a section about ‘Broadcasting to Youth.’

69 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, 1–18, Sheet 13. ‘Radio Free Europe Policy Handbook,’ 30 November 1951. Title of a section about ‘Broadcasting to Youth.’, Sheet 14.

70 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organization 1951–59, Box 197, Folder 7, Sheet 1–10, Sheet 4. ‘Secret Memorandum,’ European Operations of FEER-FEP, 26 May 1959.

71 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organization 1951–59, Box 197, Folder 7, Sheet 3.

72 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972, Hungarian Program Review, Sheets 1–8, Sheet 7. Tihany, et al., ‘Hungarian Program Review Group,’ 6 September 1967.

73 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Romanian Program Review. Sheets 1–9, Sheet 2. Mar Garrison and William Petersen, Final Report-Romanian Program Review Group RFE And VOA Broadcasts to Romania, 7 September 1967.

74 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Mailing Project: A summary, 26 July 1962, East West contacts, Publications and special projects. 1961–64, Box 258, Folder 8, Sheets 1–3, Sheet 1.

75 John C. Matthews, ‘The West's Secret Marshall Plan for the Mind,’ originally published in the International Journal of Intelligence and Counter Intelligence 16, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 409–27. Republished online at http://cryptome.org/cia-minden.htm#matthews, 17 pages, see page 3 online.

76 John C. Matthews, ‘The West's Secret Marshall Plan for the Mind,’ originally published in the International Journal of Intelligence and Counter Intelligence 16, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 409–27. Republished online at http://cryptome.org/cia-minden.htm#matthews, 17 pages, see page 4 online.

77 George Minden, Mailing Operation Monthly Report # 14, 25 October 1957, cited in ‘The West's Secret Marshall Plan for the Mind,’ by Matthews, see page 9 online.

78 George Minden, Mailing Operation Monthly Report # 14, 25 October 1957, cited in ‘The West's Secret Marshall Plan for the Mind,’ by Matthews, see page 10 online.

79 ‘The Book Project, A Presentation,’ prepared by George C. Minden, Publications and Special Projects Division, Free Europe, Inc., 18 July 1969, 1, cited in Matthews, ‘The West's Secret Marshall Plan for the Mind,’ see page 11 online.

80 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Free Europe Organizations and Publications. Box 197, Folder 8, 1–14, 9. ‘Reorientation of Exile Organizations. Strictly Confidential,’ 1 April 1960.

81 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Romanian Program Review, Box 1, Sheet 1–9, Sheet 6. Garrison and Petersen, Final Report-Romanian Program Review Group RFE And VOA Broadcasts to Romania, 7 September 1967; ‘The Mission of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty Broadcast,’ reproduced from the Board for International Broadcasting, Eight Annual Report, 1982, reprinted in Boell, ‘Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in the Mid 1980s,’ 85; NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Box 1, Sheet 1–6, Sheet 1. William A. Buell, Jr. EUR/EE, Stanislaw Skrzypek, USIA/IOP: Final Report-Polish Program Review Group, 6 September 1967. Radio Study Group Report, 09.08.1967.

82 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972, Box 1, Sheet 1–2, Sheet 1. ‘Program Review. Introduction and Summary.’ In: Radio Study Group Report, 9.8.1967.

83 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Box 1, Sheet 1–6, Sheet 1. William A. Boell, Jr. EUR/EE, Stanislaw Skrzypek, USIA/IOP: Final Report-Polish Program Review Group, 6 September 1967. Radio Study Group Report, 09.08.1967.

84 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Romanian Program Review, Box 1, Sheets 1–9, Sheet 6. Garrison and Petersen, Final Report-Romanian Program Review Group RFE And VOA Broadcasts to Romania, 7 September 1967.

85 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972, Hungarian Program Review, Box 1, Sheets 1–8, Sheet 7. Tihany, et al., ‘Hungarian Program Review Group,’ 6 September 1967.

86 For more on the public debate surrounding the stations' CIA-funding, see Frances Stonor Saunder's work Who Paid the Piper?: CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London: Granta, 1999).

87 Henry Kamm, ‘Listening in on Radio Free Europe- The Station that Fulbright Wants to Shut Down,’ in New York Times, 26 March 1972, SM36.

88 Henry Kamm, ‘Listening in on Radio Free Europe- The Station that Fulbright Wants to Shut Down,’ in New York Times, 26 March 1972, SM36 Sheet 1.

89 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Romanian Program Review, Box 1, Sheets 1–9, Sheet 6. Garrison and Petersen, Final Report-Romanian Program Review Group RFE And VOA Broadcasts to Romania, 7 September 1967.

90 Objective of Radio Free Europe, First Policy Guidance Memorandum No.1, 21 September 1950. Printed in Arch Puddington, Broadcasting Freedom (Kentucky: The University of Kentucky Press, 2000), 315.

91 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972, Sheets 1–6, Sheets 1–2. Helene Batjer and Ted Tanen, ‘Final Report-Czechoslovak Program Review Group,’ 6 September 1967. In Czechoslovakian Program Review.

92 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972, Hungarian Program Review, Sheets 1–8, Sheet 7. Tihany, et al., ‘Hungarian Program Review Group,’ 6 September 1967.

93 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Box 1, Sheets 1–6, Sheet 2. William A. Boell, Jr. EUR/EE, Stanislaw Skrzypek, USIA/IOP: Final Report-Polish Program Review Group. 6 September 1967. Radio Study Group Report, 9.8.1967.

94 Roth-Ey, Moscow Prime Time, 133.

95 HU OSA 300–8–3:101–6–46, The London Information forum and Future Trends in East European Attitudes toward International Radio Broadcasts by Jonathan Eyal, 27 June 1989, 1–12, 6.

96 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Box 1, Sheets 1–6, Sheet 2. William A. Boell, Jr. EUR/EE, Stanislaw Skrzypek, USIA/IOP: Final Report-Polish Program Review Group, 6 September 1967. Radio Study Group Report, 09.08.1967.

97 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Box 1, Sheets 1–6, Sheet 2. William A. Boell, Jr. EUR/EE, Stanislaw Skrzypek, USIA/IOP: Final Report-Polish Program Review Group. 6 September 1967. Radio Study Group Report, 9.8.1967.

98 HIA RFE Corporate Records, Radio Free Europe: Eastern Europe's Free Press, RFE/RL Inc. Corporate Records. Public Affaires Office File, Sheet 1–19, Sheet 2. Partélet (Hungarian Communist Party monthly), July 1965.

99 HIA RFE Corporate Records, Radio Free Europe: Eastern Europe's Free Press, RFE/RL Inc. Corporate Records. Public Affaires Office File, Sheet 4.

100 G. R. Urban, ed., Talking to Eastern Europe. A collection of the best reading from the broadcasts and background papers of Radio Free Europe (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1961), 8.

101 Urban, ‘Editor's Introduction,’ in Talking to Eastern Europe, 11.

102 Urban, ‘Editor's Introduction,’ in Talking to Eastern Europe, 9.

103 Ronald Hingley, ‘Ehrenburg and Solzhenitsyn,’ in Talking to Eastern Europe, 150–67, 167.

104 H. Gordon Skilling, ‘Samizdat: A return to the Pre-Gutenberg Era?’ in Samizdat and an Independent Society in Central and Eastern Europe, ed. by Idem (Columbus: Ohio State University Press 1989), 3–18, 13.

105 Joseph G. Whelan, Radio Liberty - A Study of Its Origins, Structure, Policy, Programming and Effectiveness (Washington: Congressional Research Service of the Library of Congress, 29 February 197), 167.

106 Joseph G. Whelan, Radio Liberty - A Study of Its Origins, Structure, Policy, Programming and Effectiveness (Washington: Congressional Research Service of the Library of Congress, 29 February 197) 167, 175.

107 Joseph G. Whelan, Radio Liberty - A Study of Its Origins, Structure, Policy, Programming and Effectiveness (Washington: Congressional Research Service of the Library of Congress, 29 February 197) 185.

108 Eugene Parta, ‘The Audience to Western Broadcasts to the USSR During the Cold War: An External Perspective,’ in Cold War Broadcasting: Impact on the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe: A Collection of Studies and Documents, ed. by Eugene Parta and Ross Johnson (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2010), 67–102, 99–100.

109 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Albert Boiter, Samizdat Review: Summer 1974, October 15, 1974, Samizdat Communication with Munich 1974. Sheet 1–8, 1.

110 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Albert Boiter, Samizdat Review: Summer 1974, October 15, 1974, Samizdat Communication with Munich 1974, Sheet 1–8, 2–3.

111 Whelan, Radio Liberty, 183.

112 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972. Box 1, Sheets 1–6, Sheet 1. William A. Boell, Jr. EUR/EE, Stanislaw Skrzypek, USIA/IOP: Final Report-Polish Program Review Group, 6 September 1967. Radio Study Group Report, 09.08.1967.

113 Whelan, Radio Liberty, 187.

114 Whelan, Radio Liberty 175.

115 HIA, RFE/RL Corporate Records, Samizdat General 1975–1976, Sheets 1–4, Sheet 2. Radio Liberty, The Samizdat Archive. Provisional Understanding on its nature, Outside Access and Use, Possibilities for Institutional Association. 19 November 1974.

116 A. Ross Johnson, Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. The CIA Years and Beyond (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011).

117 HU OSA 300–6–1, Records of RFE/RL Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department, Administrative Files, Audience Research and Program Evaluation. Container Nr. 9. German Andreev, 31 August 1976.

118 Martin Daughtry, ‘Sonic Samizdat. Situating Unofficial Recording in the Post-Stalinist Soviet Union,’ Poetics Today 30 (2009): 27–65, 34.

119 Whelan, Radio Liberty, 123.

120 Whelan, Radio Liberty, 123

121 Whelan, Radio Liberty, 123, 181.

122 HU OSA 300–6–1 Records of RFE/RL Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department, Administrative Files, Container Nr. 9. Questionnaires 1960–1966. Special Panel Program Reviews 1964, Sheets 1–2, Sheet 2, ‘Sakhrarov Book Influences Young Moscow Musician,’ 27 February 1976.

123 HU OSA 300–6–2, Records of RFE/RL Research Institute Box 3, 5. Quotes from Questionnaires. November and December 1968. February 1969.

124 Koktobel is described as ‘a place where Moscow and Leningrad intelligentsia of all shades—liberal, non-liberal, literary—stay’.

125 HU OSA 300–6–1 Box 9. RFE/RL Research Institute. Media and Opinion Research Department. Administrative Files. Questionnaires 1960–1966. Special Panel Program Reviews 1964, Sheets 1–5, Sheet 2. ‘Natalya Gorbanevskaya Discusses Radio Liberty,’ 20 February 1976.

126 HU OSA 300–6–1 Box 9. Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute. Media and Opinion Research Department. Administrative Files. Questionnaires 1960–1966. Special Panel Program Reviews 1964, Sheet 1–2, Sheet 2. ‘RL's Gulag Readings an Unprecedented Event, Says Recent Emigrant.’

127 Robert G. Kaiser, ‘Solzhenitsyn Speaks Out in Russia,’ in The Washington Post 3 April 1972, A1.

128 Gayle Durham Hollander, ‘Political Communication and Dissent in the USSR,’ in Dissent in the USSR. Politics, Ideology and People, ed. Rudolf L. Tőkés (Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, 1975), 233–275, 259–60.

129 Whelan, Radio Liberty, 303.

130 HU OSA 300–6–1 Box 9. Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute. Media and Opinion Research Department. Administrative Files. Questionnaires 1960–1966. Special Panel Program Reviews 1964, Sheets 1–2, Sheet 2. Mikhail Delone Urges RL to pay more attention to Russian nationalism,' 27 April 1976.

131 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to RFE/RL 1964–1972. RFE/RL Portions of March 18 Report to Assessment of RFE-1964, Box. 1. Congressional Record, 25 January 1971, Vol. 117, No. 3, 130–1.

132 Mitchie, Voices through the Iron Curtain, 288.

133 Among the most recent articles on audience research are the contributions to the edited volume by Eugene Parta and Ross Johnson, Cold War Broadcasting.

134 Mitchie, Voices through the Iron Curtain, 289.

135 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to RFE/RL 1964–1972, Sheet 1–9, Sheet 8. ‘VOA and RFE Radio Listening in Poland: A Comparison.’

136 HU OSA 300–6–1 Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department, Administrative Files, Box 9, From: Questionnaires, 1960–1966 To: Special Panel Program Review 1964. ‘Questionnaire on the Flow of Information Between East and West for the Sub-Committee on the Free Flow of Information, The North Atlantic Assembly,’ December 1974.

137 HU OSA 300–6–2. Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research. East European Area and Opinion Research, Container Nr. 3, From: Jan 1968 to Dec. 1969. ‘Quotes from Hungarian Mail,’ January and February 1969, March 1969, Sheet 4.

138 HU OSA 300–8–1, Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Publications Department. Airwaves. May 1984–October 1986. Container Nr. 1, Listeners in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Hungary telephone RFE/RL. In: Airways. A bi-monthly publication for the employees of RFE/RL, no. 1 (January/February 1986): 3–5.

139 HU OSA 300–30–29, Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Czechoslovak Unit. Telephone Calls to the Czechoslovak Desk. 1985–1986. Container Nr. 1, Telephone calls received between 7–12 October 1985, Sheets 1–9, Sheet 2.

140 HU OSA 300-40-14, RFE/RL Research Institute. Hungarian Unit. Telephone Calls, Telefonhívások XII.12, Hungarian Service, 7 Október 1985, Aug-Oct. 1985, 27–29 September 1989, 1.

141 HU OSA 300-40-14, RFE/RL Research Institute. Hungarian Unit. Telephone Calls, Telefonhívások 87ik, Hungarian Service, 25 March 1985, 1–19, 18.

142 HU OSA 300–6–2 Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research Department, East Europe Area and Opinion research, Container Nr. 1, 1962, July–Dec., Sheet 1–5, Sheet 3.

143 NACP, College Park, MD., RG 59 General Records of the Department of State. Records Relating to Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty 1964–1972, Box 1, Sheet 1–2, Sheet 1. ‘Program Review. Introduction and Summary,’ in Radio Study Group Report, 9.8.1967.

144 HU OSA 300–6–2. Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Media and Opinion Research. East Europe News and Opinion Research, Container Nr. 3, Quotes from Hungarian Mail. In: Quotes from Audience Mail. January and February 1969, March 1969. From: Jan. 1968–Dec. 1969, Sheet 1–7, Sheet 4.

145 Ignace Feuerlicht, ‘A New Look at the Iron Curtain,’ American Speech, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Oct. 1955): 186–9.