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Abstract
This article attempts to shed additional light on one of the most sensitive aspects of China's Cold War legacy – its support for Pol Pot's Democratic Kampuchea (DK) between April 1975 and January 1979. Drawing on field interviews with former Khmer Rouge cadres and official DK records, it examines how the terms of the Sino-DK entente were understood by the parties and affected Chinese influence on the ground. The evidence shows that despite providing important technical guidance, China developed little influence over high-level Khmer Rouge policies, even when such policies put China's own interests at risk. The Sino-DK relationship illustrates the capacity of weak states to exercise considerable autonomy in asymmetric alliances and some of the dangers of relatively unconditional great power assistance.
Notes
John D. Ciorciari is an assistant professor at the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan and Senior Legal Advisor to the Documentation Center of Cambodia. He is the author of The Limits of Alignment: Southeast Asia and the Great Powers since 1975 (Georgetown University Press, 2010). He would like to thank Kok-Thay Eng, Julio Jeldres, and Youk Chhang for their kind assistance in the research for this article. Email: [email protected].
1 For example, in 2008 Cambodian police dispersed activists seeking to protest China's Darfur policy by lighting an Olympic-style torch outside the infamous former Khmer Rouge prison at Tuol Sleng. Ker Munthit, ‘Mia Farrow Confronts Cambodian Police’, Associated Press, 19 Jan. 2008.
2 Ben Blanchard, ‘China Defends its Khmer Rouge Ties as Trial Opens’, Reuters, 17 Feb. 2009.
3 Kong Sothanarith, ‘China Played No Role in Khmer Rouge Politics: Ambassador’, VOA Khmer, 22 Jan. 2010.
4 Antoaneta Bezlova, ‘China Haunted by Khmer Rouge Links’, Asia Times Online, 21 Feb. 2009 (quoting civil society leader Lao Mong Hay). See also Meas Sokchea, ‘Opposition Party President Puts Blame on China, Vietnam for Khmer Rouge’, Phnom Penh Post, 18 Apr. 2012.
5 ‘Judgment of the People's Revolutionary Tribunal, 19 Aug. 1979’, translated and reprinted in Howard J. De Nike, John Quigley, and Kenneth J. Robinson, Genocide in Cambodia: Documents from the Trial of Pol Pot and Ieng Sary (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), 545–46. The tribunal cited documents showing China's praise and military aid for Democratic Kampuchea and witness accounts reporting official Chinese visits to mass grave sites. Ibid., 255–57, 408–11, 416–20.
6 See Robert O. Keohane, ‘The Big Influence of Small Allies’, Foreign Policy 2 (1971), 161–82; Robert L. Rothstein, Alliances and Small Powers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), 28–36; Annette Baker Fox, The Power of Small States: Diplomacy in World War Two (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), 180–82; and John D. Ciorciari, The Limits of Alignment: Southeast Asia and the Great Powers since 1975 (Georgetown University Press, 2010), 18–22.
7 See, e.g., Jacob Bercovitch, ‘Superpowers and Client States: Analyzing Relations and Patterns of Influence’, in Moshe Efrat and Jacob Bercovitch, eds., Superpowers and Client States in the Middle East: The Imbalance of Influence (London: Routledge, 1991), 17–19; and Philip Windsor, ‘Superpowers and Client States: Perceptions and Interactions’, in ibid., 45–52.
8 Eugene K. Lawson, The Sino-Vietnamese Conflict (New York: Praeger, 1984), 226, 298; and Norodom Sihanouk, War and Hope: The Case for Cambodia (New York: Pantheon, 1980), 97.
9 Sihanouk, War and Hope, 96; and François Ponchaud, Cambodge Année Zero (Paris: Juillard, 1977), 13–14.
10 Khieu Samphan, Cambodia's Recent History and the Reasons Behind the Decisions I Made (Phnom Penh: Ponleu Khmer Printing & Publishing House, 2004), 48–51; Stephen Heder, ‘The Kampuchean-Vietnamese Conflict’ in David W.P. Elliott, ed., The Third Indochina Conflict (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1981), 35; William Shawcross, Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon, and the Destruction of Cambodia (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979) 299; and Thu-huong Nguyen-vo, Khmer-Viet Relations and the Third Indochina Conflict (Jefferson, NC & London: McFarland & Company, 1992), 80.
11 Nayan Chanda, Brother Enemy: The War After the War (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986), 33; DK Foreign Ministry, ‘Statement of the Government’, 1:149–50; and Vietnamese Foreign Ministry, Kampuchea Dossier, 2nd edn. (Hanoi: Vietnam Courier, 1978), 1:67–150.
12 See Su That ve Quan He Viet Nam-Trung Quoc trong 30 Nam Qua [The Truth About Relations Between Vietnam and China in the Past 30 Years] (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Su That, 1979), 61–62.
13 Sophie Richardson, China, Cambodia, and the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-Existence (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 84.
14 Karl D. Jackson, ‘The Ideology of Total Revolution’, in Karl D. Jackson, ed., Cambodia, 1975–1978: Rendezvous with Death (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 41 (citing FBIS IV, May 6, 1975, H2).
15 ‘After Victory: Pointers to a Neutral Future’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 9 May 1975, 20; and Peter A. Poole, ‘Cambodia 1975: GRUNK Regime,’ Asian Survey 16:1 (1976), 29.
16 Robert S. Ross, The Indochina Tangle: China's Vietnam Policy, 1975–1979 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 45.
17 Ibid. (quoting from FBIS-PRC, 21 Apr. 1975, A24-25). See also Great Victory of the Cambodian People (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1975), 3 (reprinting a late April speech in which Chairman Mao Zedong, Vice Chairman Zhu De, and Premier Zhou Enlai add that ‘the fraternal Cambodian people may rest assured that the Chinese people will forever stand by you…’).
18 Ian Dunbar with Edith Lenart, ‘Following Peking's Revolutionary Model’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 23 May 1975, 22–23.
19 Philip Short, Pol Pot: Anatomy of a Nightmare (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), 301; Chanda, Brother Enemy, 18, 416 (note 14); and Speech by Wang Shangrong, deputy chief of the general staff of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, 6 Feb. 1976, in Proceedings of the People's Revolutionary Tribunal (Aug. 1979), document 2.5.05.
20 ‘Indochina: Each to His Own’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 June 1975, 25; and Dunbar with Lenart, ‘Following’, 22–23.
21 See The Chinese Rulers’ Crimes Against Kampuchea (Phnom Penh: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People's Republic of Kampuchea, 1984), 76, 86; and Wilfred Burchett, The China-Cambodia-Vietnam Triangle (London: Zed Press, 1982), 165–68.
22 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Transcript of Trial Proceedings, Case No. 002/19-09-2007-ECCC/TC (7 June 2012), 97.
23 Ibid., 98–103.
24 See, e.g., Andrew Mertha, ‘Surrealpolitik: The Experience of Chinese Experts in Democratic Kampuchea, 1975–1979’, Cross-Currents No. 4 (Sept. 2012), 68. See also Elizabeth Becker, When the War Was Over: Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge Revolution (New York: PublicAffairs, 1998), 278 (in which a senior Chinese diplomat reports that PRC diplomats had restricted access and were closely guarded but adding that: ‘We heard about violence. Not exact stories but rumors. We did guess many were dying in the countryside at the hands of local functionaries’).
25 Richardson, China, 84–85; and Gottesman, Cambodia After the Khmer Rouge: Inside the Politics of Nation-Building (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 97.
26 China resisted US demands to help secure the crew's release but indicated that if the US intervened, ‘there is nothing we can do.’ See Henry A. Kissinger, Years of Renewal (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999), 554–64. A Chinese diplomat later reported that China was ‘embarrassed and pressed DK leaders to release the ship. ‘Incident in the Gulf of Thailand’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 23 May 1975, 22. Before that happened, US forces mounted a rescue mission.
27 ‘Indochina’, 25.
28 Author's interview with former DK cadre Tang Ly, Trach village, Kampong Chen Cheung sub-district, Steung district, Kampong Thom Province, 20 Mar. 2003.
29 Ben Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 129 (citing Kiernan's interview with Sok Sam, Kampong Sam, July 18, 1980).
30 Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime, 128–30 (citing a Khmer Rouge-era document and interviews with cadres who worked at the port during 1975); and Justus M. Van der Kroef, ‘The Cambodian-Vietnamese War: Some Origins and Implications’, Asia Quarterly 2 (1979), 93.
31 Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 272–73.
32 Chanda, Brother Enemy, 16.
33 Short, Pol Pot, 299–300; and David Chandler, Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot, rev. edn. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999), 106.
34 Richardson, China, 86 (translating the Chinese original).
35 Sihanouk, War and Hope, 86.
36 ‘Deputy Prime Ministers Khieu Samphan and Ieng Sary Visit China’, Peking Review, 22 Aug. 1975, 3.
37 Keng Piao, ‘Report on the Situation on the Indochinese Peninsula’, Issues and Studies (Taiwan) 17:1 (1981), 82. This report, also known as the ‘Geng Biao report’, is alleged to be an internal Chinese document intercepted by Taiwanese agents. China has not acknowledged the document as official, though scholar Brantly Womack asserts that he has ‘confirmed [its] authenticity.’ Brantly Womack, ‘Asymmetry and Systemic Misperception: China, Vietnam and Cambodia during the 1970s’, Journal of Strategic Studies 26:2 (2003), 119 (note 48).
38 ‘Is Sihanouk's Exile Coming to an End?’ Far Eastern Economic Review, 1 Aug. 1975, 22; and ‘Sihanouk's Return,’ 10.
39 Gareth Porter, ‘Vietnamese Policy and the Indochina Crisis’, in Elliott, The Third Indochina Conflict, 78 (citing New China News Agency, 19 Aug. 1975); and Min Chen, The Strategic Triangle and Regional Conflicts: Lessons from the Indochina Wars (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992), 132 (citing FBIS-PRC, 18 Aug. 1975).
40 On Thailand, see Mike Snitowsky, ‘Phnom Penh's Trade Door Slightly Ajar’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 28 Nov. 1975, 20; and Poole, ‘Cambodia 1975’, 27. In September, PRC foreign minister Chiao Kuan-hua convinced US officials to meet with Sarin Chhak, the DK representative to the United Nations, and Sihanouk. Kenton J. Clymer, The United States and Cambodia, 1969–2000: A Troubled Relationship (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), 110.
41 Kenneth M. Quinn, ‘Cambodia 1976: Internal Consolidation and External Expansion’, Asian Survey 17:1 (1977), 43–54 (noting speeches by DK foreign minister Ieng Sary at the October 1975 Non-Aligned Movement summit and at the United Nations in 1976).
42 Chinese pressure appears to have tipped the balance in a debate among Khmer Rouge leaders. See Chandler, Brother Number One, 106; and ‘The End of Prince Sihanouk's ‘Holiday’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 5 Sept. 1975, 21.
43 ‘Sihanouk's Return: Death of a Dream’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 24 Oct. 1975, 9.
44 Statutes of the Communist Part of Kampuchea, Art. 23, adopted at a CPK Congress in January 1976 (DC-Cam Doc. No. D21227); and ‘Permanent Committee Meeting’ (2 Nov. 1975), DC-Cam File No. D678; John D. Ciorciari with Youk Chhang, ‘Documenting the Crimes of Democratic Kampuchea’, in Jaya Ramji and Beth Van Schaack, eds., Bringing the Khmer Rouge to Justice: Prosecuting Mass Violence before the Cambodian Courts (London: Edwin Mellen Press, 2005), 221–306.
45 Chanda, Brother Enemy, 17.
46 Richardson, China, 86–87.
47 Author's interview with Loy Unn, Trach village, Kampong Chen Cheung sub-district, Steung district, Kampong Thom province, Cambodia, 21 Mar. 2003.
48 Author's interview with former DK Commerce Ministry official Kan, Trach village, Kampong Chen Cheung sub-district, Steung district, Kampong Thom province, Cambodia, 21 Mar. 2003.
49 Ross, The Indochina Tangle, 74. See also Chanda, Brother Enemy, 80 (arguing that ‘neither moral repugnance nor ideological disapproval would shake China's support for the Khmer Rouge – support based on the solid grounds of realpolitik’).
50 Excerpts from a Speech by Wang Shang Rhung, Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Chinese Army, at the Talks with Son Sen, 6 February 1976, in De Nike et al., Genocide in Cambodia, 382–83. See also Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime, 132; and Richardson, China, 93.
51 Short, Pol Pot, 301–02, citing a document from the Vietnamese archives, Doc 32 (N442/T8300).
52 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Transcript of Trial Proceedings, Case No. 002/19-09-2007-ECCC/TC (8 Feb. 2012), 17.
53 Ibid., 15–16.
54 In an apparent effort to emphasise the national character of the revolution, the words ‘socialism’ and ‘communism’ did not appear in the Constitution, which mandated a red national flag with a yellow image of Angkor Wat in the centre – not a communist five-pointed star. David Chandler, ‘The Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia): The Semantics of Revolutionary Change’, Pacific Affairs 49: 3(1976), 506–13.
55 Laurence Picq, Au Delà du Ciel: Cinq Ans Chez Les Khmers Rouges (Paris: Barrault, 1984), 52. She adds that Khmer Rouge officials chastised her at a self-criticism session in 1977, saying ‘You like China and don't hide it. But China is not a real friend, she wants to colonize us.’ Ibid., 106.
56 ‘Minutes of the Standing Committee, 11 Mar. 1976’, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. Number D7562.
57 Richardson, China, 94.
58 Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 273–75.
59 Ross, The Indochina Tangle, 107–08.
60 Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime, 136.
61 ‘Dear Brother Khieu and Brother Tom’, 12 June 1976, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. Number L01291.
62 ‘Excerpted Report on the Leading Views of the Comrade Representing the Party Organization at a Zone Assembly, June 1976’, reprinted in David Chandler, Ben Kiernan, and Chanthou Boua, eds., Pol Pot Plans the Future: Confidential Leadership Documents from Democratic Kampuchea, 1976–1977 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), 24.
63 ‘The Party's Four-Year Plan to Build Socialism in All Fields, 1977–1980’, reprinted in Chandler et al, Pol Pot Plans the Future, 47.
64 Sokha Boun, Cambodge: La Massue de l'Angkar (Paris: Juillard, 1979), 198.
65 Chanda, Brother Enemy, 79.
66 Richardson, China, 86–89. See also Andrew Mertha, Book Review, China, Cambodia, and the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-Existence, Journal of Asian Studies 70: 1(2011), 213.
67 See, e.g., FBIS, Daily Reports, Sept. 20, 1976 (reporting on Pol Pot's eulogies to Mao, stressing his ideological leadership).
68 ‘Dear Brother Khieu and Brother Tom.’
69 ‘Dear Brother 89 and Brother 81’, 24 Aug. 1976, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. Number L01388 (04bbk).
70 See Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Statement from the International Co-Prosecutor regarding Case File 003 (22 Feb. 2012), http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/statement-international-co-prosecutor-regarding-case-file-003; and Luke Hunt, ‘What Was China's Role?’ The Diplomat, 17 Dec. 2011.
71 Robert Carmichael, ‘Trial of Four Surviving Khmer Rouge Leaders to Open in Phnom Penh’, Deutsche Welle, 24 June 2011.
72 Author's interview with Leng Kim (with Dara Vanthan, Osman Ysa, and Sochea Phann), Kampong Chhnang province, July 2002.
73 ‘Minutes of the Work Meeting of the Military in Kampong Som, 3 Aug. 1976’, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. Number L01374 (04bbk) (summarising an address from Pol Pot to military officers in Kampong Saom).
74 ‘Minutes of the meeting of Chinese team of artillery experts’, 24 Sept. 1976, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. No. L01519 (05bbk); ‘Minutes of the Comrade Meeting of [Division] 164’, 9 Sept. 1976 at 10 o'clock, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. No. L01446 (05bbk).
75 ‘Dear Beloved and Missed Brother Mut’, Telegram 17, 8 Oct. 1976, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. No. L01498 (05bbk).
76 Tang Ly interview.
77 Loy Unn interview; and Tang Ly interview.
78 Author's interview with Mai Oeun, Chamkar Tanget village, Rebeang Ken sub-district, Kandal Steung district, Kandal province, Cambodia, 27 Mar. 2003.
79 Ben Kiernan, ‘New Light on the Origins of the Vietnam-Kampuchea Conflict’, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 12:4 (1980), 61–65.
80 ‘Dear Brother 89 and Brother 81’, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. Number L01388 (04bbk).
81 Richardson, China, 91–92. See also ‘The Ghosts of Misdeeds Past’, The Economist, 11 Jan. 2001 (referencing similar allegations and noting that Chinese leader Jiang Zemin faced protests over China's role in Democratic Kampuchea during a visit to Phnom Penh in November 2000).
82 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Judgement, Case No. 001/18-07-2007/ECCC/TC (26 July 2010), 74.
83 1976 Decisions, Item 12, reprinted in Chandler et al, Pol Pot Plans the Future, 8.
84 ‘Dear Brother 89 and Brother 81’.
85 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Transcript of Trial Proceedings, Case No. 002/19-09-2007-ECCC/TC (31 May 2012), 11, 66 (pertaining to witness Sar Kim LaMouth).
86 Kan interview.
87 ‘Dear Brother 89 and 81’.
88 Dany Long's interview with former DK soldier Lat Suoy, Thma Puok District, Banteay Meanchey province, 18 May 2011, available at the Documentation Centre of Cambodia.
89 Author's interview with Sau Pauch, Prek Samraong village, Takhmau sub-district, Takhmau district, Kandal province, Cambodia, 27 Mar. 2003; and author's interview with Saom, Popeay village, Trea sub-district, Steung district, Kampong Thom province, 20 Mar. 2003.
90 See Cambodian Genocide Databases, Yale University Cambodian Genocide Program and the Documentation Centre of Cambodia, available at http://gis.library.yale.edu/website/cgp/viewer.htm.
91 Author's interview with Chum Min, Cheung Prey village, Ampeou Prey sub-district, Kandal Streung district, Kandal province, Cambodia, 27 Mar. 2003.
92 Author's interview with Sao Yon, Kampong Samnanh village, Takhmau sub-district, Takhmau district, Kandal province, Cambodia, 27 Mar. 2003.
93 See Mertha, ‘Surrealpolitik’, 74–86.
94 See, e.g., Richardson, China, 92; and Chanda, Brother Enemy, 80.
95 Richardson, China, 92; and Mertha, ‘Surrealpolitik’, 68, 86.
96 Chandler and Kiernan, preface to Chandler et al., Pol Pot Plans the Future, xii; and David Chandler, Voices from S-21: Terror and History in Pol Pot's Secret Prison (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999), 56 (citing unpublished interviews of former Khmers Rouges by Stephen Heder in 1981).
97 Minutes of Divisional and Independent Regiment, Secretary and Under Secretary's Meeting, 16 Sept. 1976, 7 o'clock, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. No. L01449 (05bbk).
98 Ibid.
99 Ben Kiernan, ‘Conflict in the Kampuchean Communist Movement’, Journal of Contemporary Asia 10:1–2 (1980), 56–57; and Craig Etcheson, The Rise and Demise of Democratic Kampuchea (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1984), 176–77.
100 Kiernan, ‘Conflict’, 57.
101 Short, Pol Pot, 361–63.
102 Richardson, China, 94.
103 For similar conclusions, see Richardson, China, 90; and Chanda, Brother Enemy, 77.
104 William J. Duiker, China and Vietnam: The Roots of Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Institute of East Asian Studies, 1986), 68.
105 William Safire, New York Times, 5 Jan. 1978 (referencing a July 1977 speech by PRC foreign minister Huang Hua smuggled out by Taiwanese agents).
106 King C. Chen, China and the Three Worlds: A Foreign Policy Reader (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. 1979), 272.
107 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, between the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Lao People's Democratic Republic, 18 July 1977. See Nguyen-vo, Khmer-Viet Relations, 85.
108 Short, Pol Pot, 362; and Chandler, Brother Number One, 133–34.
109 Becker, When the War Was Over, 308, 321–23.
110 Chandler, Brother Number One, 135–36.
111Peking Review, 7 Oct. 1977, 9, 22; Nayan Chanda, ‘Pol Pot Plays Up to Peking’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 4 Oct. 1977. See also Excerpt from Hua Kuo Feng's Speech at a Party in Honor of Pol Pot, 29 September 1977, in De Nike et al., Genocide in Cambodia, 416.
112 Becker, When the War Was Over, 307–08.
113 ‘Speech by Pol Pot: Phnom Penh Home Service, 28 Sept. 1977,’ BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, FE/5632/C, 5–20.
114 Christopher E. Goscha, ‘Vietnam, the Third Indochina War and the Meltdown of Asian Internationalism’, in Odd Arne Westad and Sophie Quinn-Judge, eds., The Third Indochina War (London: Routledge, 2006), 173–74.
115 Richardson, China, 100 (basing this conclusion on interviews with former PRC officials).
116 Keng Piao, ‘Report’, 93.
117 Ibid., 83–84.
118 Duiker, China and Vietnam, 69–70.
119 Ross, The Indochina Tangle, 157–61.
120 Keng Piao, ‘Report’.
121 DK Foreign Ministry, ‘Statement of the Government of Democratic Kampuchea to Its Friends Far and Near Across Five Continents and to World Opinion’, Kampuchea Dossier, 1:147–48. See also P.J. Honey, ‘Duoc Lam Vua’, Asian Affairs 3:3 (1978), 261 (including similar claims by Ieng Sary).
122Asiaweek, 13 Jan. 1978.
123 Grant Evans and Kelvin Rowley, Red Brotherhood at War: Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos since 1975, 2nd edn. (London: Verso, 1990), 138–39.
124 Robert C. Horn, ‘Soviet-Vietnamese Relations’ and the Future of Southeast Asia, Pacific Affairs 51:4 (1978–1979), 601; and Stephen Heder, ‘The Kampuchean-Vietnamese Conflict’, in Elliott, The Third Indochina Conflict, 45–46.
125 Chanda, Brother Enemy, 203; and Richardson, China, 99.
126 Ben Kiernan, ‘Wild Chickens, Farm Chickens, and Cormorants: Kampuchea's Eastern Zone under Pol Pot’, in David Chandler and Ben Kiernan, eds., Revolution and Its Aftermath in Kampuchea: Eight Essays (New Haven, CT: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1983), 138.
127 Keng Piao, ‘Report’, 83.
128 Brantly Womack, China and Vietnam: The Politics of Asymmetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 197–98.
129 Evans and Rowley, Red Brotherhood, 139.
130 SRV Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Chinese Rulers’ Crimes, 99; and Keng Piao, ‘Report’.
131 FBIS-APA-78–119, 20 June 1978.
132 Duiker, China and Vietnam, 80.
133 ‘Report on the Negotiation between Democratic Kampuchea's Commercial Delegation and People's Republic of China's International Trade Delegation, Afternoon of December 3, 1978’, Documentation Centre of Cambodia Doc. Number D132 (HS).
134 Evans and Rowley, Red Brotherhood, 140; and Keng Piao, ‘Report’, 83 et seq.
135 Evans and Rowley, Red Brotherhood, 140; Chanda, Brother Enemy, 327; Ross, The Indochina Tangle, 211; and Picq, Au Delà du Ciel, 141.
136 See Yun Shui, ‘An Account of Chinese Diplomats Accompanying the Government of Democratic Kampuchea's Move to the Cardamom Mountains’, Critical Asian Studies 34: 4(2002), 497–519.
137 See Ben Kiernan, How Pol Pot Came to Power: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Communism in Cambodia, 1930–1975 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 349–93; and Shawcross, Sideshow, chapter 17.
138 On Western neglect, see Jamie Frederic Metzl, Western Responses to Human Rights Abuses in Cambodia, 1975–80 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996); and Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell: American and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 87–140.