Bandung as the call for a better development project: US, British, French and Gold Coast perceptions of the Afro-Asian Conference (1955)

Abstract

How important international actors such as France, Britain and the United States, viewed the Bandung Conference of 1955 is heavily debated. Furthermore, it remains unclear how the Gold Coast, an emerging power in Africa, perceived the Afro-Asian meeting. This article seeks to illuminate those positions on Bandung through a multi-centric analysis and by reflecting on the importance of Africa for the Afro-Asian agenda. It is argued that, rather than the Cold War, racial solidarity or anti-colonialism, it was development and modernisation that shaped the response of conference observers.

Acknowledgements

Research for this article was made possible by my participation in the ninth Decolonisation Seminar in July 2014, organised by the American Historical Association and the John W. Kluge Center. I would further like to thank Robert Rakove who read an early draft of this article. I am indebted to Federico Romero, Sue Onslow, Dirk Moses, Timothy Naftali, Idesbald Goddeeris, Jason Parker and Ian Phimister for their advice and support.

Notes

¹ General – Bandung Conf, Cable, “Bandung US info,” 17 April 1955, RG.306, UD-WW285, FRC5, f: National Archives and Records Administration, College Park (hereafter NARA).

² Dipesh Chakrabarty, “The Legacies of Bandung: Decolonization and the Politics of Culture,” in Making a World after Empire: The Bandung Moment and Its Political Afterlives, ed. Christopher J. Lee (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010), 45–68.

³ “Proposed Afro-Asian Conference to be held at Djakarta about February/March 1955,” 17 November 1955, DO35/4665, memorandum, CRO, United Kingdom National Archives, London (hereafter UKNA).

⁴ Naoko Shimazu, “Diplomacy As Theatre: Staging the Bandung Conference of 1955,” Modern Asian Studies 48, no. 1 (2013): 1–28.

⁵ Robert Vitalis, “The Midnight Ride of Kwame Nkrumah and Other Fables of Bandung (Ban-Doong),” Humanity 4, no. 2 (2003): 261–288, 263.

⁶ G.H. Jansen, Nonalignment and the Afro-Asian States (New York: Praeger, 1966), 18; Itty Abraham, “From Bandung to NAM: Non-Alignment and Indian Foreign Policy, 1947-65,” Commonwealth and Comparative Studies 46, no. 2 (2009): 195–219; Robert A. Mortimer, The Third World Coalition in International Politics (New York: Westview Press, 1980); Archibald Wickeramaraja Singham and Shirley Hune, Non-Alignment in an Age of Alignments (London: Lawrence Hill, 1986); Archibald Wickeramaraja Singham, The Nonaligned Movement in World Politics (Westport, Conn: Hill, 1978); Peter Willetts, The Non-Aligned Movement: The Origins of a Third World Alliance (London: Pinter, 1978).

⁷ Jason Parker, “Ideology, Race and Nonalignment in US Cold War Foreign Relations: Or, How the Cold War Racialized Neutralism Without Neutralizing Race,” in Challenging US Foreign Policy: America and the World in the Long Twentieth Century, ed. Bevan Sewell and Scott Lucas (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 75–98. Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations: A People’s History of the Third World (New York: The New Press, 2007), 95–104.

⁸ Rinna Kullaa, Non-Alignment and Its Origins in Cold War Europe Yugoslavia, Finland and the Soviet Challenge (London: IB Tauris, 2012), 2–15; Vitalis, “The Midnight Ride of Kwame Nkrumah,” 261–288.

⁹ Robert Rakove, “Two Roads to Belgrade: The United States, Great Britain, and the First Nonaligned Conference,” Cold War History 14, no. 3 (2014): 337–57; Robert Rakove, Kennedy, Johnson, and the Nonaligned World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 67.

¹⁰ Roy Allison, The Soviet Union and the Strategy of Non-Alignment in the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 26; Francis Fukuyama and Andrzej Korbonski, eds., The Soviet Union and the Third World: The Last Three Decades (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987).

¹¹ For instance: Ama Biney, The Political and Social Thought of Kwame Nkrumah (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 135; Jean Allman, “Nuclear Imperialism and the Pan-African Struggle for Peace and Freedom: Ghana, 1959–1962,” Souls 10, no. 2 (2008): 83–102.

¹² For instance Vitalis, “The Midnight Ride of Kwame Nkrumah,” 262.

¹³ Nicholas Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945–1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), x.

¹⁴ Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 170.

¹⁵ Jason Parker, “Cold War II: The Eisenhower Administration, the Bandung Conference, and the Reperiodization of the Postwar Era,” Diplomatic History 30, no. 5 (2006): 867–92; Parker, “Ideology, Race and Nonalignment;” Chakrabarty, “The Legacies of Bandung,” 47; Cary Fraser, “An American Dilemma: Race and Realpolitik in the American Response to the Bandung Conference, 1955,” in Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights, and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1988, ed. Brenda Gayle Plummer (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 115–40; Kevin Gaines, American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 70–2; Brenda Gayle Plummer, “Introduction,” in Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights, and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1988, ed. Brenda Gayle Plummer (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 1–20.

¹⁶ Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (New York: Grove Press, 1963), 314; Prashad, The Darker Nations, xv–1.

¹⁷ Aimé Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism, trans. Joan Pinkham (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), 21–3.

¹⁸ Frederick Cooper, “Reconstructing Empire in British and French Africa,” in Post-War Reconstruction in Europe: International Perspectives, 1945–1949, ed. Mark Mazower, Jessica Reinisch, and David Feldman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 196–210.

¹⁹ Antoinette Burton, “The Solidarities of Bandung: Toward a Critical 21st-Century History,” in Making a World after Empire: The Bandung Moment and Its Political Afterlives, ed. Christopher J. Lee (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010), 351–361.

²⁰ David Bell, “This Is What Happens When Historians Overuse the Idea of the Network,” The New Republic, October 25, 2013, http://www.newrepublic.com/article/114709/world-connecting-reviewed-historians-overuse-network-metaphor; For a key example of the multi-centric approach: Ryan Irwin, Gordian Knot: Apartheid and the Unmaking of the Liberal World Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

²¹ Quoted in Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene (hereafter DDEL), OCB Central File Series, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers 1948–1961, Box 86, f: OCB 092.3 (File #2) (2) [April–November 1955], memorandum for the OCB, “Bandung Conference of April, 1955,” 1955, 12 May 1955, 3–4.

²² “World Press Opinion,” Asian-African Conference Bulletin 1, no. 1 (March 1955): 14–24.

²³ Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations, Lawrence Stone Lectures (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 1–27.

²⁴ Quoted in DDEL, OCB Central File Series, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers 1948–1961, Box 86, memorandum for the OCB, “Bandung Conference of April, 1955” 12 May 1955, 3–4.

²⁵ Ibid.

²⁶ NARA, RG.306, UD-WW285, FRC5, f: General – Bandung Conf, letter, Oscar Morland to FO, 20 April 1955, Pamphlet, “Bandung 1955,” [1955]; UKNA, DO35/6098, letter, Singapore to FO, 19 April 1955; FO371/116984, Personal telegram, Nehru to Eden, 29 April 1955; FCO141/5051, letter, British Embassy Djakarta, 5 May 1955.

²⁷ UKNA, FO371/116981, telegram, UK High Commissioner in Ceylon to CRO, 18 April 1955.

²⁸ Joseph S. Nye, “Soft Power,” Foreign Policy, no. 80 (Autumn 1990): 160; Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Richard Philcox (New York: Grove Press, 1967), 153–171.

²⁹ Quoted in George McTurnan Kahin, The Asian-African Conference, Bandung, Indonesia, April 1955 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1956), 74–5.

³⁰ UKNA, FO371/116983, Report, R.W. Parkes, “Some Impressions of the Bandung Conference April 18–24,” [April 1955], 8.

³¹ NATO-Archives, NATO/CR (55) 21, memorandum, “Summary Record of a Meeting of the Council held at the Palais Chaillot, Paris, XVIe,” 10 May 1955; UKNA, FO371/116984, letter, British embassy Djakarta to FO, 30 April 1955.

³² UKNA, FO371/116981, News bulletin, “Asian-African Conference News, Published by the Information Department of the Embassy of Indonesia in London,” 19 April 1955; “World Press Opinion,” 18; DDEL, OCB Central File Series, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers 1948–1961, Box 86, memorandum for the OCB, “Bandung Conference of April, 1955,” 12 May 1955, 3–4.

³³ Kahin, The Asian-African Conference, 74–7; Archives ministère des affaires étrangères de France, Paris (hereafter AMAEF), DAO, Généralités, 124QO/190bis, note for direction general des affaires politiques, “Conférence afro-asiatique,” 6 January 1955; UKNA, FO371/116975, W.D. Allen to Alan Lennox-Boyd, “Afro-Asian Conference,” 6 January 1954; UKNA, DO35/6097, letter, FO to Middleton, [February 1955]; DO 35/6098, letter, Embassy of Kathmandu to F.S. Tomlinson, South-East Asia Department Foreign Office, 14 April 1955.

³⁴ Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 99; Bill Mullen, Afro-Orientalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), 65–6; Ashwin Desai and Goolam Vahed, The South African Gandhi: Stretcher-Bearer of Empire (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016), 297.

³⁵ UKNA, CO936/347, minutes, W.A.C Mathieson for Gorell Barness, 31 December 1954, letter, Alan Lennox-Boyd to Eden, 11 January 1955; UKNA, FO371/116975, minutes, W.D. Allen for FO, “Afro-Asian Conference,” 1 January 1955, telegram, Washington to FO, 31 December 1954, minutes, J.E. Cable, 6 January 1955, minutes, W.D. Allen, “Afro-Asian Conference,” 3 January 1955.

³⁶ Westad, The Global Cold War, 102.

³⁷ Jack, Bandung; Kahin, The Asian-African Conference, 1–38; Carlos Romulo, The Meaning of Bandung (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1956), 177; Richard Wright, The Color Curtain: A Report on the Bandung Conference (New York: World Publishing, 1956).

³⁸ Minutes of a Meeting, Secretary’s Office, Department of State, Washington, 7 January 1955, FRUS 1955–1957, Vol. 21: East Asian Security, 1–5; Memorandum from the acting chief of the reports and operations staff (Gilman) to the secretary of state, “Main Points of Attached Status Report on Afro-Asian Working Group,” 8 February 1955, FRUS 1955–1957, Vol. 21: East Asian Security, 29–30; DDEL, AWF, NSC Series, Papers as President 1952–1961, Box 6, f: 230^th Meeting of NSC, memorandum of discussion, “230^th Meeting of the NSC,” 5 January 1955.

³⁹ NARA, RG.59, A11586C, Lot 62D430, Box 35 f: Bandung, memorandum for the undersecretary, 12 January 1955, OCB report, “Reactions to the Afro-Asian Conference (Compiled by the OCB Staff),” [1955]; DDEL, Jackson, C.D.: Papers, 1931–1967, Box 78, f: N-Misc. (1), report, “The Bandung Conference Thoughts and recommendations,” [1955].

⁴⁰ DDEL, Jackson, C.D.: Papers, 1931–1967, Box 78, f: N-Misc. (1), report, “The Bandung Conference Thoughts and recommendations,” [1955]; Official File, 1953-1961, WH Central Files, f: OF II6 ff Asian – African Conference (Bandung Conference), Box 503, Memorandum for Honorable James C. Hagerty, 6 April 1955, Memorandum for governor Sherman Adams, 6 April 1955, Official file, “Proposed Comments by the president on economic program for South and East Asia, 1953–1961,” 31 March 1953, memorandum for governor Adams, “Proposed Presidential Speech before the Bandung Conference,” 31 March 1953.

⁴¹ Report Prepared by the NSC, “(NSC 5509): Status of United States Programs for National Security as of December 31, 1954,” 2 March 1955, FRUS 1955–1957, Vol. 9: Foreign Economic Policy, Foreign Information Program, 504–21; DDEL, US President’s Committee on Information Activities Abroad (Sprague Committee) Records, 1959–61, Box 27, f: Minutes (2), “Notes on Mr. Bissell’s Presentation,” 15 March 1960; Memorandum Prepared in the Office of African Affairs, “The United States in Africa South of the Sahara,” 4 August 1955, FRUS 1955–1957, Vol. 18: Africa, 13–22; Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad, (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), 355.

⁴² Despite the explicit reference to sarcasm, ‘again facetiously’, in the transcript, historians have taken Eisenhower’s remark seriously. For only two examples see the work from which this quote is taken: Carol Anderson, “The Cold War in the Atlantic World,” in The Atlantic World, 1450–2000, ed. Toyin Falola and Kevin David Roberts (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), 294–314. Jason Parker, “Crisis Management and Missed Opportunities: US Public Diplomacy and the Creation of the Third World, 1947–1950,” in The United States and Public Diplomacy: New Directions in Cultural and International History, ed. Kenneth Osgood and Brian Etheridge (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 225–256.

⁴³ UKNA, CO936/348, telegram, R. Makins to FO, 28 February 1955; Augusto Espiritu, “‘To Carry Water on Both Shoulders’: Carlos P. Romulo, American Empire, and the Meaning of Bandung,” Radical History Review 95 (2006): 173–190. For the argument that Bandung was a missed opportunity of the Eisenhower administration: Parker, “Cold War II,” 888.

⁴⁴ UKNA, FO371/16975, minutes, C.R.A. Rae, “Afro-Asian Conference,” 31 December 1954.

⁴⁵ Memorandum of a conversation, Department of State, Washington, “Participation of African States in Afro-Asian Conference,” 1 February 1955, FRUS 1955–1957, Vol. 18: Africa, 1–2; UKNA, FCO141/5051, telegram, StateDept, 31 December 1954; FO371/16975, minutes, J.E. Cable, 3 January 1955, letter, Parkes to FO, 3 January 1955.

⁴⁶ UKNA, FO371/116975, note, E.M. West to A.A.W. Landymore, 4 March 1955; FO371/116977, report, “Afro-Asian Conference,” [January 1955]; FO371/116978, memorandum, “Afro-Asian Conference,” 2 March 1955.

⁴⁷ UKNA, FCO141/505, telegram, governor to secretary of state, 8 January 1955, 2, Telegram, secretary of state to governor, 21 January 1955.

⁴⁸ AMAEF, DAO, Généralités, 124QO/190bis, letter, M.C. Renner to ministre des affaires etrangeres, “Conférence Afro-Asiatique,” 26 January 1955.

⁴⁹ UKNA, FCO141/5051, memorandum, governor, “Afro-Asian Conference,” 2 May 1955, Memcon, F.E. Cumming-Bruce, “Record of Talk with Mr. Dei-Anang,” 2 May 1955; Public Records Archives and Administration Department, Accra (hereafter PRAAD), RG.17/2/800 Miscellaneous 1955–1964, letter, Nkrumah to Nehru, 17 March 1955.

⁵⁰ Kweku Ampiah, The Political and Moral Imperatives of the Bandung Conference of 1955: The Reactions of the US, UK and Japan (Folkestone: Global Oriental, 2007), 128.

⁵¹ AMAEF, DAO, Généralités, 124QO/190, note, “la première Conférence afro-asiatique, Bandung – (Indonésie) 18 April 1955 par le commandant Rousset- SGPDN,” 6 April 1955, 5; AMAEF, DAO, Généralités, 124QO/190bis, note for direction général des affaires politiques, “Conférence afro-asiatique” [January 1955].

⁵² Chafer, The End of Empire in French West Africa, 29, 145; AMAEF, DAL Généralités, 49QONT/32, f: 32/1, report, “Bulletin d’information du mois de July 1955, émanant de la Direction d’Afrique-Levant Sous-Direction d’Afrique,” 1955; UKNA, FO371/116975, letter, W.D. Allen to Alan Lennox-Boyd, “Afro-Asian Conference,” 6 January 1954.

⁵³ Connelly quotes him, to show the racial fears in France, but generally speaking there was more confidence with regard to Africa: see Matthew Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 81.

⁵⁴ AMAEF, DAO, Généralités, 142QO/190ter, Incoming telegram, Auge, “De la part de M.P. Devinat,” 26 March 1955, note for cabinet du ministre, “Voyage en Asie de M. Devinat,” 14 March 1955; UKNA, FO371/116980, Letter, H.S. Stephenson to F.S. Tomlinson, 4 April 1955.

⁵⁵ UKNA, FO371/116977, draft submission, “Afro-Asian Conference,” [January 1955].

⁵⁶ Quote taken from: Nicholas Tarling, “‘Ah-Ah’: Britain and the Bandung Conference of 1955,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 23, no. 1 (March 1992): 86.

⁵⁷ AMAEF, DAO, Généralités, 124QO/190, letter, P.H. Teitgen to DAO, “Conférence afro-Asiatque de Bandoeng,” 6 April 1955.

⁵⁸ AMAEF, DAO, Généralités, 124QO/190bis, letter, consul de France à Singapour to DAO, “Entretien avec M. Dudley,” 31 January 1955, 6; This contradicts the findings in Tarling, “Ah-Ah,” 110.

⁵⁹ AMAEF, DAL Généralités, 49QONT/32, f: 32/1, Information bulletin, “Bulletin d’information du mois de July 1955, émanant de la Direction d’Afrique-Levant Sous-Direction d’Afrique,” 1955; DAO Généralités, 124QO/274, f: Chine, Conférence de Bandung, Affaire de Formose, note, “Conférence de Bandung Affaire de Formose,” 6 May 1955.

⁶⁰ UKNA, FO371/116985, telegram, Roger Makins to FO, 12 May 1955; CO 936/350, notes, Geoffrey Caston, 24 May 1955; DDEL, WH Office, OCB central File Series, Box 86, memorandum for the OCB, “Bandung Conference of April, 1955,” 12 May 1955.

⁶¹ Quotes taken from UKNA, FO371/116984, letter, British Embassy Djakarta to FO, 5 May 1955; FCO141/5051, letter, British Embassy Djakarta to FO, 5 May 1955, memcon, F.E. Cumming-Bruce, “Record of Talk with Mr. Dei-Anang,” 2 May 1955; FO371/116981, letter, Djakarta to FO, 22 April 1955; Tarling, “Ah-Ah,” 109.

⁶² The French response to Bandung has not been thoroughly analysed but there is agreement that Bandung generated little response in terms of policy, see Parker, “Cold War II,” 891–2; Tarling, “Ah-Ah,” 108–11; Amady Aly Dieng, Les Grands Combats de la Fédération des étudiants d’Afrique noire de Bandung aux indépendances, 1955–1960 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009), 1–15.

⁶³ Babacar M’Baye, “Richard Wright and African Francophone Intellectuals: A Reassessment of the 1956 Congress of Black Writers in Paris,” in African Diaspora and the Metropolis: Reading the African, African American and Caribbean Experience, ed. Fassil Demissie (New York: Routledge, 2013), 29–42. Chafer, The End of Empire, 93, 16; Richard Watts, “Negritude, Présence Africaine, Race,” in Postcolonial Thought in the French-Speaking World, ed. Charles Forsdick and David Murphy (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 227–37.

⁶⁴ ‘Nous ne pourrons éviter longtemps la confrontation. Si nous la refusons, elle se fera – elle se fait déjà – sans nous et dans les pires conditions’: see AMAEF, DAL, Généralités 1953–1959, 49QONT/66, report, Leopold Senghor, “Voyage officiel en Afrique occidentale britannique, du secrétaire d‘Etat à la Présidence du Conseil 22 Septembre – 7 October 1955,” October 1955, 21.

⁶⁵ AMAEF, DAL, Généralités 1953–1959, 49QONT/66, Report, Leopold Senghor, “Voyage officiel en Afrique occidentale britannique, du secrétaire d‘Etat à la Présidence du Conseil 22 Septembre – 7 October 1955,” October 1955, 14.

⁶⁶ NARA, RG.59, A11587–M, Box 63, f: Nationalism, memorandum for Andrew Berding, 9 May 1955; RG.306, UD-WW285, FRC5, f: Afro-Asian Conference – 1956, Circular, 22 May 1956.

⁶⁷ UKNA, CO 1027/72, memorandum, Anthony Eden, “Colonial Publicity,” 6 August 1954; letter, HT Bourdillon to ITM Pink, “Proposed General Assembly speech defending colonialism,” 24 September 1956, Goldsworthy, David, ed. The Conservative Government and the End of Empire 1951–1957, BDEE (British Documents on the End of Empire) 1994, Vol. 3, Pt 1, pp. 408–11 (London: Her Mayesty's Stationery Office, 1994, no. 169).

⁶⁸ Letter, HT Bourdillon to ITM Pink, 30 October 1956, in David Goldsworthy, ed., The Conservative Government and the End of Empire 1951–1957 (BDEE, 1994), Vol. 3, Pt. 1, p. 415 (London: Her Mayesty's Stationery Office, 1994, no. 171); UKNA, CO1027/74, minutes, Watrous for Evans, 16 March 1954; CO1027/72, draft paper for OIS (Official) Committee, “The Overseas Information Services Prospects for Expansion in 1956/1957” [1955]; INF12/978, report, CO, “Information activities undertaken by the Colonial Office in the African territories” [1958].

⁶⁹ Kate Morris, British Techniques of Public Relations and Propaganda for Mobilizing East and Central Africa during World War II, Studies in British History 61 (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 2000), 210.

⁷⁰ Memorandum from the Secretary of State to the President, 14 May 1956, FRUS, 1955–1957, Vol. 22: Southeast Asia, 267–8; Rakove, Kennedy, Johnson, and the Nonaligned World, 3; Plan described in Egya Sangmuah, “Eisenhower and Containment in North Africa, 1956–1960,” Middle East Journal 44, no. 1 (1990): 77.

⁷¹ Kwame Nkrumah, “Africa had Scholars before Europe,” Evening News, September 4, 1963; Kwame Nkrumah, I Speak of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology (London: William Heinemann, 1961), 125; Biney, The Political and Social Thought of Kwame Nkrumah, 120.

⁷² Colin Legum, Bandung, Cairo and Accra: A Report on the First Conference of Independent African States (London: Africa Bureau, 1958), 13.

⁷³ Legum, Bandung, Cairo and Accra, 6; Vitalis argues that Nkrumah was only concerned with Nasser in his diplomacy surrounding Bandung and ignores Nkrumah’s concerns about Asian paternalism: see Vitalis, “The Midnight Ride of Kwame Nkrumah,” 276, 275; W. Scott Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, 1957–1966: Diplomacy, Ideology, and the New State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), 46.

⁷⁴ Michael Dei-Anang, The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, 1957–1965: A Personal Memoir (London: Athlone Press, 1975), 20; Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, 39.

⁷⁵ Moorland-Springarn Research Center, Dabu Gizenga Papers, Box 128-6, f: 108 Conference, speech transcript, Kwame Nkrumah, “Conference on Positive Action and Security in Africa, Accra, 7^th to 10^th April, 1960: Opening Session,” 7 April 1960; Allman, “Nuclear Imperialism,” 93–6; Bill Sutherland and Matt Meyer, Guns and Gandhi in Africa: Pan-African Insights on Nonviolence, Armed Struggle and Liberation (Trenton: Africa World Press, 2000), 41.

⁷⁶ NARA, RG.306, P249, Box 10, f: Policy – French Atomic Tests [Folder1/2], confidential outgoing message, Washburn to African posts, “Infoguide: Emergency Conference For Peace and Security in Africa”, 1 April 1960.

⁷⁷ Archives de Ministère des Affaires étrangères Belge, Portefeuille N°13.191 II – 13.192, f: Fiches Politiques échangés: Conférences afro-Asiatique Aff Col. 212, 1954, letter, Chargé d’Affaires a.i. de Belgique to Paul Henri Spaak, “Résumé : M. Nehru fait remettre à plus tard la convocation d’une Conférence Asie-Afrique,” 2 Septembre 1954; Portefeuille N°12966/1955, Letter, Stevens to Spaak, “Objet : Indonésie : politique intérieure,” 20 January 1955, Letter, Stevens to Spaak, “Objet: Fin de la Conférence de Bandung,” 27 April 1955, Letter, Stevens to Spaak, “Objet: Commentaire sur la communiqué final de la Conférence de Bandung,” 28 April 1955.

⁷⁸ Parker, “Cold War II,” 870.