‘Socialist friends should help each other in crises’: Sino-Polish relations within the Cold War dynamics, 1980–1987

Abstract

The article argues that the deep political, economic, and social crisis in Poland in 1980–1981 served as a vehicle for China to pursue its political and ideological agenda towards Eastern Europe, which it previously treated as marginal in its economic modernization efforts. The article also shows that while the Polish leadership used China economically to help with its survival, it did not go beyond the constraints laid out by the framework dictated by the Sino-Soviet split.

Keywords:

• Poland
• China
• Sino-Polish relations
• Deng Xiaoping
• Jaruzelski

Notes

¹ There is a limited discussion on the topic in Jan Rowiński, ‘Wahadło. Czyli stosunki polityczne PRL-ChRL’, in Polska-Chiny Wczoraj, dziś, jutro, ed. Bogdan Góralczyk (Toruń: Adam Marszałek, 2009) 41–50; Jeanne L. Wilson, ‘The Polish Lesson: China and Poland, 1980–1990’, Studies in Comparative Communism, 45 (1990), 259–279. While Wilson’s piece is pioneering, her focus is predominantly on China’s labor policy.

² Andrzej Paczkowski and Malcolm Byrne, eds., From Solidarity to Martial Law: The Polish Crisis of 1980–1981: a Documentary History (Budapest and New York: Central European University Press, 2008), xxix.

³ ‘Note regarding the Visit of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers’ Party (CC PUWP) Inter-Departmental Study Group in China’, December 1979, KC PZPR: LXXVI – 718, Archiwum Akt Nowych [Archive of Modern Records in Warsaw, hereafter AAN]; Top Secret Telegram (TSC), Polish Embassy in Beijing [hereafter PEB] PEB (Rychłowski) to MFA, 2 February 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-123, Archiwum Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych [Archives of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, hereafter AMSZ]. AMSZ.

⁴ See especially Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2011); Vladislav M". Zubok, ‘”Look What Chaos in the Beautiful Socialist Camp!”: Deng Xiaoping and the Sino-Soviet Split, 1956–1963,’ Cold War International History Project Bulletin 10 (March 1998): 152–162.

⁵ TSC, Urgent, PEB, Ambassador Władysław Wojtasik, to Foreign Minister Józef Czyrek [hereafter FM Czyrek], 12 March 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-112, AMSZ.

⁶ TSC, PEB (Rychłowski) to Foreign Minister Emil Wojtaszek [hereafter FM Wojtaszek], 8 April 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-125, AMSZ.

⁷ Michael Szporer, Solidarity: The Great Workers Strike of 1980 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2012).

⁸ Gale Stokes, From Stalinism to Pluralism: A Documentary History of Eastern Europe since 1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 205–208; Andrzej Paczkowski, Tajne Dokumenty Biura Politycznego: PZPR a ‘Solidarność’, 1980–1981 (Londyn: Aneks, 1998).

⁹ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Stachowiak) to MFA, 22 December 1970, z-Depesze 6/77, w-256, t-1168, AMSZ, (circulated to Gierek); and PEB (Rychłowski) to MFA, 5 and 7 July 1976, z-59/78, w-80, t-546, AMSZ.

¹⁰ Paczkowski and Byrne, From Solidarity to Martial Law, 15–17.

¹¹ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to FM Czyrek, 1 December 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-23, AMSZ.

¹² TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 11 December 1980, KC PZPR: XIA/1273, AAN.

¹³ TSC, Urgent, Eyes Only, PEB (Wojtasik) to FM Czyrek, 29 December 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

¹⁴ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 10 and 12 December 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-124, AMSZ.

¹⁵ TSC, Urgent, MFA to PEB (Wojtasik), 2 December 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-125, AMSZ.

¹⁶ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 22 and 24 December 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-124, AMSZ.

¹⁷ Deng Xiaoping, ‘Implement the Policy of Readjustment, Ensure Stability and Unity’, December 25, 1980 in Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, volume 2 (1975–1982), http://dengxiaopingworks.wordpress.com/2013/02/25/on-the-reform-of-the-system-of-party-and-state-leadership/ (Accessed November 28, 2013).

¹⁸ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 12 and 14 February 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-112, AMSZ.

¹⁹ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 31 March and 16 July 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-112 and t-113, AMSZ.

²⁰ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 30 July 1981z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

²¹ Deng Xiaoping, ‘Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles’, 30 March 1979 in Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, volume 2 (1975–1982), http://dengxiaopingworks.wordpress.com/2013/02/25/on-the-reform-of-the-system-of-party-and-state-leadership/ (Accessed November 28, 2013).

²² TSC, PEB to MFA, 28 August and 21 September 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

²³ Stokes, From Stalinism to Pluralism, 209–213.

²⁴ TSC, PEB to MFA, 1 October 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

²⁵ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 6 November 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

²⁶ TSC, Polish Embassy in Moscow [hereafter PEM], Ambassador Kazimierz Olszewski to MFA, 26 November 1981, z-23/84, w-9, t-96, AMSZ.

²⁷ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 3 and 4 November 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

²⁸ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 13 December 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

²⁹ TSC, Immediate delivery, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 15,16 December, 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

³⁰ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 16 December 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

³¹ Baum, Burying Mao, 205.

³² TSC, Urgent, Eyes Only, PEB (Wojtasik) to FM Czyrek, 17 December 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

³³ Confidential, ‘Note of Conversation with the representatives of the Chinese Institute of Foreign Relations conducted in Beijing on 8 February 1983’, forwarded to the CC PUWP, KC PZPR: LXXVI-616, pp. 1–4, AAN.

³⁴ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 20 November 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-124, AMSZ.

³⁵ TSC, Urgent, PEB to MFA, 13 December 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-124, AMSZ.

³⁶ TSCs, Immediate delivery, PEM (Olszewski) to FM Czyrek (circulated to Jaruzelski and Kania), 14 and 19 February 1981, z-23/84, w-9, t-96, AMSZ.

³⁷ TSC, Urgent, MFA to PEB (Wojtasik), 25 April and 7 May 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-114, AMSZ.

³⁸ TSC, MFA to PEB (Wojtasik), 25 May 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-114, AMSZ.

³⁹ TSC, Urgent, PEM (Olszewski) to Foreign Trade Minister Tadeusz Nestorowicz [hereafter: FTM Nestorowicz], 2 September 1981, z-23/84, w-9, t-96, AMSZ.

⁴⁰ TSC, PEM to MFA, 9 September 1981, z-23/84, w-9, t-96, AMSZ. Also see ‘Session of the CPSU CC Politburo’, 10 December 1981, , F. 89, Op. 66, D. 6, L1. 1–11, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, TsKhSD , trans. Mark Kramer. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/110482.

⁴¹ TSC, Urgent, Eyes Only, PEM (Olszewski) to FM Czyrek (circulated to Jaruzelski), 6 November 1981, z-23/84, w-9, t-96, AMSZ.

⁴² TSC, PEM (Olszewski) to FM Czyrek, 30 November 1981, z-23/84, w-9, t-96, AMSZ.

⁴³ TSC, PEM (Olszewski) to MFA, 4 December 1981, z-23/84, w-9, t-96, AMSZ.

⁴⁴ TSC, Immediate delivery, PEM (Olszewski) to FTM Nestorowicz and FM Czyrek, 14 and 15 December 1981; and TSC, Immediate delivery, PEM (Olszewski) to MFA, 18 December 1981, z-23/84, w-9, t-96, AMSZ.

⁴⁵ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 12 January 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

⁴⁶ Krzysztof Szczepanik, Anna Herman-Lukasik, and Barbara Janicka, eds., Stosunki Dyplomatyczne Polski: Informator, Tom II, Azja, Zakaukazie, Australia i Oceania, 1918–2009 (Warszawa: Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych, 2010), 67.

⁴⁷ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 17 and 21 November 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

⁴⁸ Jaruzelski to Reagan, 4 January 1982, http://www.thereaganfiles.com/document-collections/19820104-hos.pdf (Accessed on March 18, 2015).

⁴⁹ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 31 May and 9 June 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

⁵⁰ TSC, Eyes Only, PEB (Wojtasik) to FM Czyrek, 15 January 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

⁵¹ TSC, FTM Nestorowicz to PEM (Ambassador Stanisław Kociołek), 29 June 1982, z-26/84, w-11, t-95, AMSZ.

⁵² TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 20 January, 21 April, and 21 May 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

⁵³ Zhang Qingmin, The Bureaucratic Politics of US Arms Sales to Taiwan, Chinese Journal of International Politics (2006) 1 (2): 231–265; John H. Holdridge, Crossing the Divide: An Insider’s Account of Normalization of U.S.-China Relations (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), 215.

⁵⁴ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 3 January 1983, z-22/85, w-15, t-117, AMSZ.

⁵⁵ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 6 January and 8 February 1983 and TSC, Foreign Trade Minister Władysław Gwiazda in Beijing to MFA, 31 March 1983, z-22/85, w-15, t-117, AMSZ.

⁵⁶ Szczepanik et al., Stosunki Dyplomatyczne Polski, 67. The author also thanks Dr. Péter Vámos of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in Budapest for this economic data.

⁵⁷ Confidential, ‘Talking Points prepared for [Jaruzelski’s] conversation with Deng Xiaoping - the Permanent Member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, the Chairman of the Central Advisory Committee of the CCP, the Chairman of the Military Commission of the CC CCP and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission,’ 5 September 1986, KC PZPR: LXXVI-716, pp. 1–4, AAN.

⁵⁸ ‘Remarks by The First Secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party, General Wojciech Jaruzelski in Beijing, 28–30 September, 1986,’ KC PZPR: LXXVI-716, p. 5, AAN.

⁵⁹ Secret, ‘Informational Note regarding 10–13 March 1987 official visit in Poland of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Comrade Wu Xueqian,’ 17 March 1987, KC PZPR: LXXVI-711, p. 3, AAN.

⁶⁰ ‘Informational Note on the Visit of Deputy Foreign Minister Ernest Kucza in China prepared by the International Department of the CC PUWP, Warsaw, 29 August 1984,’ KC PZPR: LXXVI-710, pp. 1–2, AAN.

⁶¹ ‘Report from the meeting of representatives of governmental ministries and departments of the CC PUWP, held in Warsaw on 27 August 1985 to assess Sino-Polish relations,’ KC PZPR: LXXVI-710, pp. 1–4, AAN.

⁶² Confidential, ‘Difficult political topics re: relations with the PRC, Warsaw, September 15, 1986,’ KC PZPR: LXXVI-716, pp. 1–2, AAN.

⁶³ Confidential, ‘Talking Points prepared for [Jaruzelski’s] conversation with Deng Xiaoping,’ KC PZPR: LXXVI-716, pp. 1–4, AAN.

⁶⁴ Ibid., pp. 1–4.

⁶⁵ ‘Talking points prepared by Aleksander Filasiewicz Deputy Director in the State Council of Ministers for General Jaruzelski for the visit of Premier Zhao Ziyang,’ Warsaw, 28 April 1987, KC PZPR: LXXVI-714, pp.1–3, AAN.

⁶⁶ Confidential, ‘Report by Professor of Sinology Maria Roman Sławiński on Poland’s participation in the International Commission on the Far East held in Moscow, 31 May – 2 June, 1983,’ KC PZPR: LXXVI-710, pp. 1–4, AAN; ‘Letter from Professor Sławiński to the International Department of the CC PUWP to increase Polish representation in the International Commission for Far East Affairs and allow for participation in the European Association of China Studies,’ 18 December 1983, KC PZPR: LXXVI-710, pp. 1–3, AAN.

⁶⁷ Confidential, ‘Report to the CC PUWP by Professor Sławiński on the conference of Soviet bloc nations and the Soviet Union held in Sofia, Bulgaria, on 6–12 February 1984 entitled ‘China – the Problems of War and Peace,’ KC PZPR: LXXVI-710, pp. 1–6, AAN.

⁶⁸ Confidential Report on the ‘Interkit’ meeting in Moscow held on 18 February 1985, including the Decisions and Directives on Poland’s China policy of the CC PUWP, KC PZPR: LXXVI-710, pp. 1–7, AAN; ‘The Statement by the representative of the International Department of the CC PUWP Bogumil Sujka at the ‘Interkit’ Meeting in Budapest, on 30–31 October 1984, KC PZPR: LXXVI-710, pp. 1–12, AAN.

⁶⁹ Note regarding the creation of the Institute of Chinese Studies approved by the CC PUWP, International Department, Warsaw, 7 July 1986, KC PZPR: LXXVI-710, pp. 1–2, AAN.

⁷⁰ Deng Xiaoping, ‘On the Reform of the System of Party and State Leadership’, 18 August 1980 in Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, vol. 2 (1975–1982), http://dengxiaopingworks.wordpress.com/2013/02/25/on-the-reform-of-the-system-of-party-and-state-leadership/ (Accessed November 28, 2013); Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 553–555; Baum, Burying Mao, 102.

⁷¹ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 5 December 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-124, AMSZ.

⁷² TSC, PEB to MFA, 8 September 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-124, AMSZ.

⁷³ ‘Democracy Wall Prisoners: Xu Wenli, Wei Jingsheng, and other jailed prisoners of the Chinese pro-democracy movement,’ Human Rights Watch/Asia, 5 (1993), 12; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 250; 255.

⁷⁴ Merle Goldman and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds. Changing Meanings of Citizenship in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 183–184.

⁷⁵ Wilson, ‘The Polish Lesson,’ 265.

⁷⁶ Baum, Burying Mao, 111.

⁷⁷ TSC, PEB to MFA, 5 November 1980, z-29/82, w-15, t-124, AMSZ.

.⁷⁸ Edwin Pak-wah Leung, ed., Political Leaders of Modern China: A Biographical Dictionary (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002), 22; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 717–722.

⁷⁹ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 30 January 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-112, AMSZ.

⁸⁰ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to FM Czyrek, 11 February 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-112, AMSZ.

⁸¹ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 31 May and 9 June 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

⁸² TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 29 – 30 March 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-112, AMSZ.

⁸³ Wilson, ‘The Polish Lesson,’ 263.

⁸⁴ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 18 October 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-115, AMSZ.

⁸⁵ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 9 January 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ; and TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 11 October 1983, z-22/85, w-15, t-118, AMSZ.

⁸⁶ Li Danhui and Shen Zhihua, ‘Several Issues in China’s Relations with Five East European Countries in the 1960s – New Evidence from Chinese Archives’, (paper presented at the the ‘Interkit’ workshop organized by the Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies (FRIAS), Freiburg, Germany, 12–13 May 2011).

⁸⁷ ‘Secret, Note from the CC CPSU re: recent Sino-Soviet relations,’ AAN, KC PZPR: XIA/86, p. 332–345; James Hershberg, Sergey Radchenko, Peter Vamos, and David Wolff, ‘The Interkit Story: A Window into the Final Decades of the Sino-Soviet Relationship,’ (CWIHP Working Paper No. 63, Woodrow Wilson Center, Washington, DC, April 2011).

⁸⁸ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 18 December 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

⁸⁹ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 9 January 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

⁹⁰ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 2 March 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

⁹¹ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 19 October 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-115, AMSZ.

⁹² Confidential, Note of Conversation with the representatives of the Chinese Institute of Foreign Relations conducted in Beijing on February 8, 1983, forwarded to the CC PUWP, KC PZPR: LXXVI-616, pp. 1–4, AAN.

⁹³ TSC, MFA to PEB (Wojtasik), 27 July 1982, z-26/84, w-11, t-95, AMSZ; and MFA to PEM (Kociołek), 14 August 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-115, AMSZ.

⁹⁴ Secret, ‘Report on the state and prospects of Poland’s relations with the PRC in light of the current policy conducted by the Chinese leadership towards the countries of the socialist commonwealth, Warsaw, 29 November 1979,’ Gabinet Ministra, z-4/86, w-2, t.34, pp. 1–13, AMSZ; TSC, PEB to FTM Nestorowicz, 29 January 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ; TSC, Urgent, Eyes Only, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 20 September and 8 October 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-115, AMSZ.

⁹⁵ TSC, Urgent, Eyes Only, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 14 October 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

⁹⁶ TSC, PEM (Olszewski) to MFA, 18 December 1980, KC PZPR, XIA/1273, AAN; TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to FM Czyrek, 13 April 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-112, AMSZ; and TSC, PEB to MFA, 3 August 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ.

⁹⁷ TSC, PEM (Olszewski) to MFA, 19 April 1982, z-26/84, w-11, t-94, AMSZ.

⁹⁸ Confidential, “Informational Note on the Conversation with Chinese Ambassador Li Zewang upon his Urgent Request” (received by Kania, Jaruzelski, and Czyrek), 13 February 1981, BU MSW II 2882, Instytut Pamięci Narodowej [Institute of National Remembrance in Warsaw, hereafter IPN].

⁹⁹ TSC, Eyes Only, Immediate Delivery, PEB (Wojtasik) to FM Czyrek (circulated to Jaruzelski), 18 May 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

¹⁰⁰ TSC, Urgent, PEM (Kociołek) to FTM, 2 and 12 July 1982, z-26/84, w-11, t-94, AMSZ.

¹⁰¹ TSC, MFA to PEB (Wojtasik), 25 October 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-114, AMSZ.

¹⁰² TSC, MFA to PEM (Kociołek), 7 December 1982, z-26/84, w-11, t-95, AMSZ.

¹⁰³ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 31 May and 9 June 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

¹⁰⁴ For details on Sino-Soviet normalization efforts see, Péter Vámos, ‘“Only a Handshake but No Embrace”: Sino-Soviet Normalization in the 1980s’,” in China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949 – Present, ed. Thomas P. Bernstein and Hua-yu Li (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2011), 79–104.

¹⁰⁵ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 4 August 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-115, AMSZ.

¹⁰⁶ Sheng Lijun,‘China’s Independent Foreign Policy’, Pacific Focus: Inha Journal of International Studies, 9, no 1 (March 1994): 5–45.

¹⁰⁷ TSC, PEM (Kociołek) to FM Czyrek, 16 September 1982, z-26/84, w-11, t-94, AMSZ.

¹⁰⁸ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 26 November and 11 December 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-115, AMSZ.

¹⁰⁹ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 27 June 1983, z-22/85, w-15, t-117, AMSZ.

¹¹⁰ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 15 June and 30 September 1983, z-22/85, w-15, t-117 and t-118, AMSZ.

¹¹¹ TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 16 September 1983, z-22/85, w-15, t-118, AMSZ.

¹¹² TSC, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 26 October 1981, z-23/84, w-12, t-113, AMSZ; TSCs, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 4, 6, 7 and 30 January and 12 February 1982, AMSZ, z-26/84, w-14, t-113.

¹¹³ For details on the establishment of Chipolbrok and the early days of its activities, see Margaret K. Gnoinska, ‘Poland and the Cold War in East and Southeast Asia, 1949–1965’, (PhD diss., The George Washington University, 2010), 39–102.

¹¹⁴ Shu Guang Zhang, Economic Cold War: America’s Embargo against China and the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949–1963 (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2001), 165.

¹¹⁵ TSC, Urgent, PEB (Wojtasik) to MFA, 22 June 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-113, AMSZ.

¹¹⁶ For more details, see Margaret K. Gnoinska, “Czechoslovakia and Poland: Supervising Peace on the Korean Peninsula, 1953–1955,” Journal for the History of Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe (Slovansky Prehled), 98 (2012): 293–320; Margaret K. Gnoinska, ‘Poland, Intra-Communist Dynamics, and the Second Geneva Conference on Laos, 1961–1962’ in L’échec de la paix. The Failure of Peace in Indochina (1954–1962), ed. Christopher E. Goscha and Karine Laplante (Paris: Les Indes Savantes, 2010), 305–325; and Gnoinska, “Poland and the Cold War in East and Southeast Asia”, 167–260; 452–517; and 643–703.

¹¹⁷ Margaret K. Gnoinska, ‘Dealing with China in the 1960s and the 1970s: Two Different Approaches by Władysław Gomułka and Edward Gierek’, in Same Dreams, Different Beds: Sino-European Relations and the Transformation of the Cold War, ed. Enrico Fardella, Charles Kraus, and Christian Ostermann (Stanford/Washington D.C.: Stanford University Press/Woodrow Wilson Center, forthcoming 2017).

¹¹⁸ Interview with Janusz Lewandowski (late former Polish diplomat actively involved in Asian affairs) Warsaw, Poland, 25 October 2006.

¹¹⁹ Li Danhui and Shen Zhihua, “Several Issues in China’s Relations with Five East European Countries in the 1960s”.

¹²⁰ TSC, Eyes Only, Exclusively for Your Information, MFA to PEB (Wojtasik), 8 November 1982, z-26/84, w-14, t-114, AMSZ.

¹²¹ On Jaruzelski’s inability to lead and reform Poland, see especially Andrzej Paczkowski, ‘Dowódca czy przywódca? Wojciech Jaruzelski, 1981–1989,’ in Władza w PRL: Ludzie i Mechanizmy, ed. Konrad Rokicki and Robert Spałka, (Warszawa: IPN, 2011) 259–289.