The Cold War and environmental history: complementary fields

Abstract

The Cold War was not only for the hearts and minds of people, it was also for their mouths and bellies, that is, for food, energy and raw materials. This signified a global power struggle over the control of natural resources. In addition to the increasing consumption of natural resources and resulting pollution, the destructive capacity of the weapons of mass destruction compelled human beings to recognise that their activities could ultimately endanger the planet earth. The Cold War was a propagator and framework for the birth of global catastrophism and also for the emergence of a global environmental awareness. Nature, its exploitation and also gradually its protection, opened up yet another front in the Cold War. Yet the relationship between the Cold War and the environment was reciprocal. On the one hand, concerns over environmental contamination or destruction called into question the meaningfulness of the Cold War itself. On the other hand, the specific sociopolitical structures of the Cold War deeply affected the emergence of environmental ideas, ideals, organisations and activities in different continents.

Acknowledgements

The editor wishes to thank the Foundation for Baltic and East European Studies (Östersjöstiftelsen) for its financial support and both Södertörn University, Sweden, and University of Turku, Finland, for fruitful cooperation and flexibility, which made possible editing this Special Issue. Also the editor wishes to thank M.Soc.Sci Nathan Adair for revising the language.

Notes

¹ Charles R. (Bob) Hitz, ‘The Russians are Coming Here – 1965!,’ January 9, 2013, Webpages of Carmen Finley, https://carmelfinley.wordpress.com/2013/01/10/the-russians-are-coming-here-1965/ Accessed 14 May 2016. See also: Charles R. Hitz,” Observations of a Russian Trawler,” The Fishermen’s News 21:11 (June 1965), 9.

² Charles R. (Bob) Hitz, ‘1966 and the Soviet fishing fleet appears off the Oregon Coast,’ October 14 (2012), https://carmelfinley.wordpress.com/2012/10/15/1966-and-the-soviet-fishing-fleet-appears-off-the-oregon-coast/ Accessed 14 May 2016.

³ Carmen Finley, ‘So why were those Soviet boats fishing off Washington?,’ Posted October 19, 2012, https://carmelfinley.wordpress.com/2012/10/19/so-why-were-those-soviet-boats-fishing-off-washington/ Accessed 13 May 2016; Michael Weber, From Abundance to Scarcity: A History of U.S. Marine Fisheries Policy (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2002).

⁴ Carmen Finley, All the Fish in the Sea: Maximum Sustainable Yield and the Failure of Fisheries Management (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2011); Poul Holm, ‘World War II and the 'Great Acceleration' of North Atlantic fisheries,’ Global Environment, 10 (2012): 66–91.

⁵ We prefer to use this wider definition of the Cold War era because the competition between East and West started already during WWII, if not earlier.

⁶ For a chilling account see Jacob Hamblin, Arming Mother Nature: The Birth of Catastrophic Environmentalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

⁷ John McNeill, Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the 20th-Century World (New York: Norton, 2000).

⁸ It is important to note that voices for nature conservation and environmental protection were raised at the end or right after the war. See, John Dower, National parks in England and Wales (London: Her Majestys´s Stationery Office, 1945) and Arthur George Tansley, Our heritage of wild nature: a plea for organized nature conservation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1945). Sir Tansley invented the concept of ‘ecosystem.’

⁹ See Thomas Robertson, ‘Total War and the Total Environment: Fairfield Osborn, William Vogt, and the Birth of Global Ecology,’ Environmental History, 17, no. 2 (July 2012): 336–64.

¹⁰ For a seminal description of the milestones see John McCormick, Reclaiming Paradise: The Global Environmental Movement (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989).

¹¹ See, for example, Paul R. Ehrlich, Carl Sagan, and Donald Kennedy, The Cold and the Dark: The World after Nuclear War (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1984).

¹² Hamblin, Arming Mother Nature; Simo Laakkonen, Richard Tucker, Timo Vuorisalo, ‘Conclusions: World War II and its Shadows,’ in The Long Shadows: A Global Environmental History of the Second World War, ed. Simo Laakkonen, Timo Vuorisalo, Richard Tucker (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2017).

¹³ See, for example, Matthew Evangelista, Unarmed Forces: The Transnational Movement to End the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999).

¹⁴ Tuomas Räsänen, Simo Laakkonen, ‘Cold War and the environment: The role of Finland in international environmental politics in the Baltic Sea region,’ Ambio. A Journal of the Human Environment, 36, no. 2–3 (April 2007): 229–36.

¹⁵ Robert Gottlieb, ‘Post-cold War Environmentalism,’ Los Angeles Times, 1 January 1990, http://articles.latimes.com/1990-01-01/local/me-18_1_cold-war

¹⁶ See, for example, Donald Hughes, What is Environmental History? (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006); For a description of conceptual approaches see History and Theory, Theme Issue, 42, no. 4 (December 2003): 1–135.

¹⁷ J. R. McNeill, Corinna Unger, eds., Environmental Histories of the Cold War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Simo Laakkonen and Richard Tucker, eds., ‘World War II, the Cold War, and Natural Resources,’ Global Environment. A Journal of History and Natural and Social Sciences, 10 (2012): 8–115; Edwin A. Martini, ed., Proving Grounds: Militarized Landscapes, Weapons Testing, and the Environmental Impact of U.S. Bases (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015). Other related works are presented later in this Special Issue.

¹⁸ Cold War History has already naturally paid attention to environmental history before this Special Issue. See, for example, Stephen Macekura, ‘The limits of the global community: The Nixon administration and global environmental politics,’ Cold War History, 11, no. 4 (November 2011): 489–518 and Paul Rubinson, ‘The global effects of nuclear winter: science and antinuclear protest in the United States and the Soviet Union during the 1980s,’ Cold War History, 14, no. 1 (January 2014): 47–69.

¹⁹ Christof Mauch, Nathan Stoltzfus, and Douglas R. Weiner, eds., Shades of Green: Environmental Activism Around the Globe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006), 2.

²⁰ For one overview, see Richard P. Tucker, ‘The International Environmental Movement and the Cold War,’ in Richard H. Immerman and Petra Goedde, Oxford Handbook on the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

²¹ Gareth Porter and Janet Welsh Brown, Global Environmental Politics (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), 71–3.

²² Arvid Nelson, Cold War Ecology: Forests, Farms, and People in the East German Landscape, 1945–1989 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), 141–70.

²³ William T. Markham, Environmental Organizations in Germany: Hardy Survivors in the Twentieth Century and Beyond (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008), 234–41.

²⁴ Stanley J. Kabala, ‘The History of Environmental Protection in Poland and the Growth of Awareness and Activism,’ in Environmental Action in Eastern Europe, ed. Barbara Jancar-Webster (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993) 124.

²⁵ Thomas Lekan, Imagining the Nation in Nature: Landscape Preservation and German Identity, 1885–1945 (Cambridge, London: Harvard University Press, 2004); Frank Uekoetter, The Green and the Brown: A History of Conservation in Nazi Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Sandra Chaney, Nature of the Miracle Years: Conservation in West Germany, 1945–1975 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008).

²⁶ Brian Doherty, Ideas and Actions in the Green Movement (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 39–43.

²⁷ Dorothy Nelkin and Michael Pollak, The Atom Besieged: Extraparliamentary Dissent in France and Germany (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1981), 60–8.

²⁸ Horst Mewes, ‘A Brief History of the Germany Green Party,’ in The German Greens: Paradox between Movement and Party, ed. Margit Mayer and John Ely (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998): 29–48.

²⁹ Paul Byrne, The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (London: Croom Helm, 1988), 123.

³⁰ Gerard H. Clarfield and William M. Wiecek, Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear Power in the United States, 1940–1980 (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), chap. 8; Ralph H. Lutts, ‘Chemical Fallout: Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, Radioactive Fallout, and the Environmental Movement,’ Environmental Review, 9, no. 3 (Fall 1985): 210–25. See also Stewart Firth, Nuclear Playground (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987). For the long-term environmental impacts of all nuclear bomb tests in the Pacific, see Mark D. Merlin, ‘Environmental Impacts of Nuclear Testing in Remote Oceania, 1946–1996,’ in Environmental Histories of the Cold War, ed. John R. McNeill and Corinna R. Unger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010): 167–202.

³¹ The most detailed account is Ralph A. Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon (New York: Harper, 1958).

³² Robert A. Divine, Blowing on the Wind: The Nuclear Test Ban Debate, 1954–1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 262–80; Paul H. Rubinson, ‘“Crucified on a Cross of Atoms”: Scientists, Politics, and the Test Ban Treaty,’ Diplomatic History, 35, no. 2 (2011): 283–319.

³³ Lawrence S. Wittner, Confronting the Bomb: A Short History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2009); Lawrence S. Wittner, Rebels against War: The American Peace Movement, 1933–1983 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), 240–75; Glen Harold Stassen and Lawrence S. Wittner, eds., Peace Action: Past, Present and Future (Boulder: Paradigm, 2007); Milton S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, 1957–1985 (New York: Greenwood, 1986); Glen Harold Stassen and Lawrence S. Wittner, eds., Peace Action: Past, Present, and Future (Boulder: Paradigm Press, 2007).

³⁴ Barry Commoner, The Closing Circle: Nature, Man & Technology (New York: Bantam Books, 1972), 51–2. For broader context see Michael Egan, Barry Commoner and the Science of Survival: The Remaking of American Environmentalism (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007). For Sweden, see Wilhelm Agrell, Alliansfrihet och atombomber. Kontinuitet och förändring i den svenska försvarsdoktrinen från 1945 till 1982 (Stockholm: Liber Förlag, 1985).

³⁵ There was as yet no public recognition of the massive radioactive pollution around the Hanford nuclear site in Washington State. For radiation problems throughout the western United States, see Valerie Kuletz, The Tainted Desert: Environmental Ruin in the American West (New York: Routledge, 1998).

³⁶ For debate on the development of peaceful nuclear power in the USSR see, Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005). For a more technical account, see Arkadii Kruglov, The History of the Soviet Atomic Industry (New York: Taylor & Francis Publishing, 2002).

³⁷ Hanford, Washington became the single greatest Superfund site: by 1996 about 75 billion dollars had already been spent, with forty more years of work projected. Glenn Zorpette, ‘Hanford’s Nuclear Wasteland,’ Scientific American (May 1996), 88–97. See also Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

³⁸ See, for example, Kirkpatrick Sale, The Green Revolution: The American Environmental Movement 1962–1992 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993) and Thomas R. Wellock, Preserving the Nation: The Conservation and Environmental Movements 1870–2000 (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2007).

³⁹ For overviews on these themes, see, for example, Jim Schwab, Deeper Shades of Green: The Rise of Blue-Collar and Minority Environmentalism in America (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1994); Janis Bailey and Ross Gwyther, ‘Red and Green: Towards a Cross-Fertilisation of Labour and Environmental History,’ Labour History, no. 99 (November 2010): 1–16; Dianne Glave and Mark Stoll, eds., ‘To Love the Wind and the Rain’: African Americans and Environmental History (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2006); Elizabeth D. Blum, Love Canal Revisited: Race, Class, and Gender in Environmental Activism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2011).

⁴⁰ For critical studies see, for example, Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Hugh S. Gorman, Redefining Efficiency: Pollution Concerns, Regulatory Mechanisms, and Technological Change in the U.S. Petroleum Industry (Akron: University of Akron Press, 2001); Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010); David Kinkela, DDT and the American Century: Global Health, Environmental Politics, and the Pesticide that Changed the World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); Soraya Boudi and and Nathalie Jas, eds., Toxicants, Health and Regulation since 1945 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2013); and Soraya Boudia and Nathalie Jas, eds., Powerless Science? Science and Politics in a Toxic World (New York: Berghahn Books, 2014). Yet there is still a lack of studies that focus on particular corporations or companies.

⁴¹ Andrew Smith, ‘Business History and Environmental History,’ blog , 10 July 2012, https://pastspeaks.com/2012/07/10/business-history-and-environmental-history/ Accessed 14 June 2016. See also Hartmut Berghoff and Mathias Mutz, ‘Missing Links? Business History and Environmental Change,’ in a Special Issue, ‘Nature incorporated’: Unternehmensgeschichte und ökologischer Wandel / Business History and Environmental Change, Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte/ Economic History Yearbook, 50, no. 2 (2009): 9–22. However, if environmental historians have avoided addressing specific sensitive issues in the Western democracies, many scholars have been more than eager to pinpoint such things in the communist countries, in particular.

⁴² Petr Pavlínek and John Pickles, Environmental Transitions, Transformation and Ecological Defense in Central and Eastern Europe (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), 9.

⁴³ Ivan Volgyes, ed., Environmental deterioration in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger Publications, 1974); Boris Komarov [Ze'ev Wolfson], The Destruction of Nature in the Soviet Union (New York: M. E. Sharp Armonk, 1980).

⁴⁴ French, Green Revolutions, 5.

⁴⁵ Murray Feshback and Alfred Friendly, Jr., Ecocide in the USSR: Health and Nature Under Siege (New York: BasicBooks, 1992), 1.

⁴⁶ Barbara Jancar, Environmental Management in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia: Structure and Regulation in Federal Communist States (Durham: Duke University Press, 1987), 3.

⁴⁷ Roger Manser, Failed transitions: The Eastern European Economy and Environment Since the Fall of Communism (New York: The New Press, 1993).

⁴⁸ Douglas R. Bori, ‘Foreword,’ in Pollution Abatement Strategies in Central and Eastern Europe, ed. Michael A. Toman (Washington D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1994), vii.

⁴⁹ Alan Dingsdale et al., ‘Hungary,’ in Environmental Problems in East-Central Europe, eds. Frank Carter and David Turnock (London: Routledge, 2002), 157–82.

⁵⁰ Matthew R. Auer, ed., Restoring Cursed Earth: Appraising Environmental Policy Reforms in Eastern Europe and Russia (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004). See also Edward Snajdr, Nature Protests: The End of Ecology in Slovakia (Seattle: Washington University Press, 2008), 22–48 and Paul Josephson et al., An Environmental History of Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

⁵¹ One of the few exceptions is Donald Filtzer’s recent study The Hazards of Urban Life in Late Stalinist Russia: Health, Hygiene, and Living Standards, 1943–1953 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

⁵² As an example of this situation, scholarly debates culminated recently at a workshop concerning environmental policy of communist and capitalist countries during the Cold War that was held in Washington DC in May 2015. The workshop was concluded without the convergence of conflicting positions.

⁵³ Even though some of the previous books could be ascribed to politicized Cold War historiography they should not be neglected, because they contain highly useful information as well.

⁵⁴ Council of Europe, Fresh Water pollution control in Europe (Council of Europe, 1966), 115.

⁵⁵ Marshall I. Goldman, The Spoils of Progress: Environmental Pollution in the Soviet Union (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1972), 119–20.

⁵⁶ Environmental Misuse in the Soviet Union, ed. Fred Singleton (Westport: Praeger Publishers, 1976), xvi.

⁵⁷ Komarov, Environmental deterioration in the Soviet Union, 8–9, 16; Charles E. Ziegler, Environmental Policy in the USSR (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987), 52–7; Feschbach and Friendly, Ecocide in the USSR, 116–20.

⁵⁸ Mildred Turnbull, Soviet Environmental Policies and Practices: The Most Critical Investment (Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing Company, 1991), 1.

⁵⁹ Jane I. Dawson, Eco-Nationalism: Anti-Nuclear Activism and National Identity in Russia, Lithuania, and Ukraine (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 5–17; David L. Feldman and Ivan Blokov, The Politics of Environmental Policy in Russia (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2012), 8–10.

⁶⁰ György Enyedi and Viktória Szirmai, ‘Environmental Movements and Civil Society in Hungary,’ in Environment and Society in Eastern Europe, eds. Andrew Tickle and Ian Welsh (Harlow: Longman, 1998), 147.

⁶¹ Gerhard Würth, Umweltschutz und Umweltzerstörung in der DDR (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1985), 23–4. See also the unique book series on the history of environmental protection in the GDR, edited by Hermann Behrens and Jens Hoffmann: Umweltschutz in der DDR: Analysen und Zeitzeugenberichte (Band 1: Politische und umweltrechtliche Rahmenbedingungen, Band 2: Mediale und sektorale Aspekte, Band 3: Beruflicher, ehrenamtlicher und freiwilliger Umweltschutz) (München: Oekom-Verlag 2007).

⁶² Raymond Dominick, ‘Capitalism, Communism and Environmental protection, Lessons from the German experience’, Environmental History, 3, no. 3 (1998): 315–17. For an interesting comparison see Astrid Kirchhof, ‘“For a decent quality of life”: Environmental groups in East and West Berlin,’ Journal of Urban History, 41, no. 4 (2015), 1–22.

⁶³ Anolda Cetkauskaite and Ausra Jakstaite, ‘Wastewater treatment in Lithuania from 1950 to 1990,’ European Water Management, 2, no. 4 (August 1999): 40–50; Anolda Cetkauskaite, Dmitry Zarkov, and Liutauras Stoskus, ‘Water quality control, monitoring and wastewater treatment in Lithuania from 1950 to 1999,’ Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment, 4–5, no. 30 (August 2001): 297–305. For more information see articles attached to the webpages of The Sea and the Cities project, http://www.helsinki.fi/envirohist/seaandcities/

⁶⁴ Douglas R. Weiner, A Little Corner of Freedom: Russian Nature Protection from Stalin to Gorbachev (University of California Press: Berkeley and London, 1999); See also Feliks Shtilmark, History of the Russian Zapovedniks 1895–1995 (Edinburgh: Russian Nature Press, 2003) and Bonhomme, Global Environment, 20–1.

⁶⁵ Zsuzsa Gille, From the Cult of Waste to the Trash Heap of History: The Politics of Waste in Socialist and Postsocialist Hungary (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2007); see also Viktor Pál, ‘Crave for Growth: The Environmental History of Water in the Borsod Basin, Hungary, 1945–1980,’ Doctoral Dissertation, University of Tampere, 2015.

⁶⁶ Stephen Brain, The Song of the Forest: Russian Forestry and Stalinist Environmentalism, 1905–1953 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011); see also Brian Bonhomme, Forests, Peasants, and Revolutionaries: Forest Conservation and Organization in Soviet Russia, 1917–1929 (Boulder: East European Monographs, 2005). See also: Laurent Coumel, ‘A Failed Environmental Turn? Khrushchev’s Thaw and Nature Protection in Soviet Russia,’ The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review, 40, no. 2 (2013), 167–89.

⁶⁷ Cetkauskaite and Jakstaite, Wastewater treatment in Lithuania, 40–48; Simo Laakkonen and Tuomas Räsänen, ‘Science Diplomacy in the Baltic Sea Region: Beginnings of East-West Cooperation in Marine Protection during the Cold War, in Northern Europe in the Cold War: East-West Interactions of Security, Culture, and Technology, ed. Ann-Marie Ekengren, Rasmus Mariager and Poul Villaume (Helsinki: Aleksanteri Institute, 2016) 25–48; Elena Kochetkova, ‘Seeing the Forest and the Trees: Western Forestry Systems and Soviet Engineers, 1955–1964,’ Technology and Culture, 57, no. 3 (2016), 586–611.

⁶⁸ Bonhomme, Global Environment, 35. See also: Andy Bruno, ‘Russian Environmental History: Directions and Potentials,’ Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, 8, no. 3 (2007), 635–50.

⁶⁹ For a pioneering project see a three volume book series on the history of environmental protection in the GDR which involved 46 authors: Hermann Behrens and Jens Hoffmann, eds., Umweltschutz in der DDR: Analysen und Zeitzeugenberichte (Band 1: Politische und umweltrechtliche Rahmenbedingungen, Band 2: Mediale und sektorale Aspekte, Band 3: Beruflicher, ehrenamtlicher und freiwilliger Umweltschutz) (München: Oekom-Verlag 2007).

⁷⁰ See, for example, Anna Bramwell, Blood and Soil: Richard Walther Darre and Hitler's ‘Green Party’ (Bourne End: Kensal, 1985); Peter Staudenmaier and Janet Biehl, Ecofascism: Lessons from the German Experience (Edinburgh: AK Press, 1996); Raymond H. Dominick III, The Environmental Movement in Germany, Prophets and Pioneers, 1871–1971 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1992); Joachim Radkau and Frank Uekoetter, eds., Naturschutz und Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt and New York: Campus, 2003).

⁷¹ Marco Armiero and Wilko Graf von Hardenberg, ‘Green Rhetoric in Blackshirts: Italian Fascism and the Environment,’ Environment and History, 19, no. 3 (February 2013): 283–311.

⁷² Tiago Saraiva, ‘Laboratories and Landscapes: the Fascist New State and the Colonization of Portugal and Mozambique,’ Journal of History of Science and Technology, 3 (Fall 2009): 35–61.

⁷³ Pablo Corral Broto, ¿Una sociedad ambiental? Historia de los conflictos ambientales bajo la dictadura franquista en Aragón (1939–1979), (PhD Diss., Universidad de Granada, École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 2014); Pablo Corral Broto,‘Expertise and Rural Protests Against Industrial Pollution from Early to Miracle Years in Francoist Spain (1945–1965),’ in Natureza e cidades o viver entre águas doces e salgadas, ed. Gercinair Silvério Gandara (Goiás, Brasil: Editora da PUC, 2012) 214–31.

⁷⁴ Joost Jongerden, The Settlement Issue in Turkey and the Kurds: An Analysis of Spatial Politics, Modernity and War (Leiden and Boston, MA: Brill, 2007), 72–6; For the background of the war in Algeria see Martin Evans, Algeria: France’s Undeclared War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

⁷⁵ Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Times Books, 2007), ch. 6.

⁷⁶ See Greg Grandin, The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011).

⁷⁷ Beatriz Manz, Refugees of a Hidden War: The Aftermath of Counterinsurgency in Guatemala. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); News from Americas Watch, November 8, 1990; Daniel Wilkinson, Silence on the Mountain: Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004); Etelle Higonnet, ed., Quiet Genocide: Guatemala 1981–1983 (New Brunswick NJ and London: Transaction Publishers, 2009).

⁷⁸ Russell Schimmer, Environmental Impact of Genocide in Guatemala: the Ixil Triangle and the Mexican Border, GSP Working Paper No. 31, http://gsp.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/Genocide_in_Guatemala_GSP_WorkingPaperNo_31.pdf Accessed 4 May 2016; see also Greg Gandin, The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011).

⁷⁹ For Cuba, see Reinaldo Funes Monzote, From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History Since 1492, trans. Alex Martin (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); Nicolás Cuvi, ‘Big Science and the Enchantment of Growth in Latin America,’ Global Environment, 10 (2012): 16–41.

⁸⁰ For the background of environmental history studies in Brazil see, José Augusto Drummond, ‘A história ambiental: temas, fontes e linhas de pesquisa,’ Revista Estudos Históricos, Rio de Janeiro 4:8 (1991), 171–97. For an innovative environmental oral history study also exploring the Cold War era, see Benito Bisso Schmidt, Eurípedes Funes, and Marcos Montysuma, ‘História, natureza, cultura e oralidade, II,’ Revista História Oral, 15, no. 1 (2012): 1–229.

⁸¹ Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Geraldo Müller, Amazônia: expansão do capitalismo (São Paulo: Editora Brasiliense, 1977), 22; For the background of migrants on the coastal zone see, Thomas D. Rogers, The Deepest Wounds: A Labor and Environmental History of Sugar in Northeast Brazil (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).

⁸² Simo Laakkonen, ‘Roasted forests: Coffee and the history of deforestation in Brazil,’ in Sustainable Forestry Challenges for Developing Countries, ed. M. Palo and M. Mery (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996) 243–44.

⁸³ The first nucleus of the protected area had been established in 1958 before the military coup d’etat. Portal do Governo, Sistema Ambiental Paulista, Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itantins, http://www.ambiente.sp.gov.br/e-e-jureia-itatins/informacoes-ao-usuario/# Accessed 15 May 2016; Warren Dean, With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 309.

⁸⁴ For example, see N. Patrick Peritore, Third World Environmentalism: Case Studies from the Global South (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999); Edward Broughton, ‘The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review,’ Environmental Health, 4, no. 6 (2005), http://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-4-64 Accessed June 2016.

⁸⁵ Chris Pearson, Peter Coates and Tim Cole, eds., Militarized Landscapes: From Gettysburg to Salisbury Plain (London: Continuum, 2010).

⁸⁶ Michael Geyer, ‘The Militarisation of Europe, 1941–1945,’ in The Militarisation of the Western World, ed. John Gills, (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 79.

⁸⁷ For an excellent overall presentation see Chris Pearson, ‘Researching Militarized Landscapes: A Literature Review on War and the Militarization of the Environment,’ Landscape Research, 37, no. 1 (February 2012): 115–33.

⁸⁸ Peter Coates, Tim Cole, Marianna Dudley, and Chris Pearson, ‘Defending Nation, Defending Nature? Militarized Landscapes and Military Environmentalism in Britain, France, and the United States,’ Environmental History, 16, no. 3 (2011): 456–91; Rachel Woodward, ‘Military landscapes: Agendas and approaches for future research,’ Progress in Human Geography, 38, no. 1 (February 2013): 40–61.

⁸⁹ Denis E. Cosgrove, Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape (Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1984).

⁹⁰ Robert Gottlieb, ‘Post-cold War Environmentalism,’ Los Angeles Times, 1 January 1990, http://articles.latimes.com/1990-01-01/local/me-18_1_cold-war. For the Soviet Union see Robert L. Dunaway, Environmental Assistance as National Security Policy: Helping the Former Soviet Union Find Solutions to its Environmental Problems, INSS Occasional Paper 4, November 1995, (Colorado: US Air Force Academy, USAF Institute for National Security Studies, 1995), 2.

⁹¹ The Agent Orange defoliation campaign in Vietnam is a good example of this. For a pioneering study see J. B. Neilands, Gordon H. Orians, E. W. Pfeiffer, Alje Vennema, and Arthur H. Westing, Harvest of Death: Chemical Warfare in Vietnam and Cambodia (Free Press: New York, 1972).

⁹² Simo Laakkonen, ‘Polemosphere: The War, Society and the Environment,’ The Long Shadows, 2017.

⁹³ Currently Dr. Reinsone is the director of the Digital Archives of Latvian Folklore (garamantas.lv). Her original study of the life histories of Latvian national partisan women Meža meitas. 12 sievietes par dzīvi mājās, mežā, cietumā (Riga: Dienas Grāmata, 2015) has been widely acknowledged in her native country. It was for a long time the most sold non-fiction book in Latvia.

⁹⁴ Alexander Statiev, The Soviet Counterinsurgency in the Western Borderlands (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

⁹⁵ For another pioneering publication in this respect, see Maren Röger and Ruth Leiserowitz, eds., Women and Men at War: A Gender Perspective on World War II and its Aftermath in Central and Eastern Europe (Osnabrück: fibre-Verlag, 2012).

⁹⁶ On similar changes in the Estonian countryside see Hannes Palang, ‘Time Boundaries and Landscape Change: Collective Farms 1947–1994,’ European Countryside, 2, no. 3 (2010): 169–81. For the Soviet border zone in Estonia see Tiina Peil, ‘Frontier geography: Fieldwork in the Soviet border zone,’ Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift. Norwegian Journal of Geography, 67, no. 1 (2013).

⁹⁷ Her contribution in this Special Issue is an outcome of her presentation at an international workshop organised by Finnish Oral History Network (FOHN) in Helsinki. Outi Fingerroos, Simo Laakkonen ja Kirsti Salmi-Niklander, ‘Review: Finnish oral history network,’ Elore 13:1 (2006), 1–8 (electronic journal) (http://www.elore.fi/arkisto/1_06/fls1_06.pdf).

⁹⁸ Michael E. Latham, The Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold War to the Present (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011).

⁹⁹ Richard Tucker, ‘Containing Communism by Impounding Rivers: American Strategic Interests and the Global Spread of High Dams in the Early Cold War,’ in Environmental Histories of the Cold War, ed. McNeill and Unger.

¹⁰⁰ Mahendra Lawoti and Anup K. Pahari, eds., The Maoist Insurgency in Nepal: Revolution in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Routledge, 2010).

¹⁰¹ Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

¹⁰² Jefrey Sasha Davis, ‘Military Natures: Militarism and the Environment,’ GeoJournal, Special Issue, 63, no. 3 (2007): 131–210.