North Korea and Zimbabwe, 1978–1982: from the strategic alliance to the symbolic comradeship between Kim Il Sung and Robert Mugabe

Abstract

This article provides an explanation for North Korea-Zimbabwe bilateral relations from the late 1970s to the early 1980s, in the context of Cold War in the Third World. Supporting the military resistance of African nations, North Korea sought to gain its dominance over South Korea in the diplomatic war between the two Koreas. North Korea contributed to the liberation of Zimbabwe and helped Robert Mugabe establish his political foundations in the country. However, North Korea’s political gain from Zimbabwe was less than it expected and hence did not make any significant changes in its competition with South Korea.

Keywords:

• Southern Africa
• North Korea
• Third World
• non-aligned movement

Notes

¹ Korea Today, November Issue, 1980. The official diplomatic visit to China was made by the Foreign Minister Simon Muzenda in June 1980.

² ‘Prime Minister Robert Mugabe’s Speech,’ Rodong Sinmun, Oct. 10, 1980.

³ The Pyongyang Times, 16 May 1981.

⁴ ‘The dispatch of North Korean military advisors to Zimbabwe,’ Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea 1981, 725.1ZB, Roll 2011–0034-0001, File 1, Frames 1–129; For more details of conflict between Mugabe and Nkomo, see Timothy Scarnecchia,‘Rationalising Gukurahundi: Cold War and South African Foreign Relations with Zimbabwe, 1981–1983’ Kronos, vol. 37 no. 1 (June 2012), 87–103; Timothy Scarnecchia, ‘Gukurahundi: Apartheid SA-Zim collaboration,’ Zimbabwe Independent, 6 March 2015; Dumiso Dabengwa, ‘ZIPRA in the Zimbabwean War of National Liberation,’ in N. Bhebee and T. Ranger (eds.) Soldiers in Zimbabwe's Liberation War, Volume One (Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications, 1995) 24–35; and Sue Onslow and Sean Redding, ‘Wasted Riches: Robert Mugabe and the Desolation of Zimbabwe,’ Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 10 Issue 1, (2009), 63”.

⁵ For example, Dailymail, Dec. 22, 2011. North Korea also highlighted the bilateral relations between Pyongyang and Harare, see ‘Floral Baskets to Statues of Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il from Zimbabwean Party,’ Korea Central News Agency (KCNA), 8 July 2016.

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ Regarding the general explanation of North Korea’s Third World engagement in the 1970s and 80s please see Suh Daesuk, Kim Il Sung: North Korean Leader. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995); Barry K. Gills, Korea vs. Korea: A case of contested legitimacy (London: Routledge, 1996); and Charles K. Armstrong, Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950- 1992 (Ithaca: Cornell University, 2013); Chung Chongwook, ‘North Korea and the International Community: The Search for Legitimacy in the United Nations and Elsewhere’, in Robert A.Scalapino and Lee Hongkoo (eds), North Korea in a Regional and Global Context, Berkeley, Centre for Korean Studies, Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1986, 344–70; and Jide Owoeye, ‘The Metamorphosis of North Korea's African Policy, Asian Survey,’ Vol. 31, No. 7 (Jul., 1991), 630–645.

⁸ ‘Promoting improvement of relations with African nations without diplomatic relations, 1982,’ Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 722.2, Roll 2012–0006, File 2, Frames 1–128.

⁹ ‘The visit of Zimbabwe major figures in economic affairs to Korea, 8-12 September 1982,’ Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 761. 422 ZB, Roll 2072–0074, File 1, Frames 1–138.

¹⁰ A similar case would be the military intervention of China and Cuba in the Third World states during the Cold War. See Piero Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2003) and Philip Snow, The Star Raft: China's Encounter With Africa (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989).

¹¹ O.A. Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Time (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

¹² ‘The dispatch of North Korean military advisors to Zimbabwe, 1981,’ Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 725.1ZB, Roll 2011–0034-0001, File 1, Frames 1–129.

¹³ Andrew Norman, Mugabe: Teacher, Revolutionary, Tyrant (Stroud: History Press, 2008), 77.

¹⁴ ‘The visit of Zimbabwe major figures in economic affairs to Korea, 8-12 September 1982,’ Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 761. 422 ZB, Roll 2072–0074, File 1, Frames 1–138.

¹⁵ For instance, Zaire, now DR Congo, approached North Korea for military support in 1973. For details, see Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions, 187.

¹⁶ Gills, Korea vs. Korea 98.

¹⁷ Jervis, R. "Cooperation under the Security Dilemma," World Politics vol. 30, No.2 (January 1978), 167–174; and Jervis, R. Perception and Misperception in International Politics(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978), 58–113; Regarding the security dilemma between the two Koreas, see Kim Yong-ho, North Korean Foreign policy: Security Dilemma and Succession (Plymouth: Lexington Books, 2011), 4.

¹⁸ Gills, Korea vs. Korea 140- 143.

¹⁹ Ibid. However, this bill was cancelled out by the passage of a bill raised by South Korea and the USA which allowed the station of US forces in South Korea de factor. In this sense, this ‘impressive achievement’ in the UNGA neither provided Pyongyang a key to its ‘security dilemma’ nor could be called a significant success.

²⁰ For this, Charles Armstrong, the Korean historian, has argued that the North Korean idea was accorded a certain zeitgeist in the 1960s and 70s. See Charles Armstrong, Tyranny of the Weak, 178.

²¹ South Korea’s entrance was rejected by NAM at that time.

²² Kim Il Sung, The Non-alignment Movement is A Mighty Anti-imperialist Revolutionary Force of Our Times, (Pyongyang: Foreign Language Publishing House, 1976), 317.

²³ President Nyerere visited North Korea in 1968. See Pyongyang Times, 27 June 1968.

²⁴ Gills, Korea vs. Korea, 118.

²⁵ Kim Il Sung, Senegal Jeonguk gijahyeobhoe daepyodani jegihan jilmune daehan daedab [Answers to the questions from Representatives of Senegal National Press Association], Dated on 21 August, 1974 (Pyongyang: Joseon Labour Party Press, 1974), 22.

²⁶ Kim Il Sung, Joseon rodongdang je 6cha daehoeeseo han jungang wiwonhoe saeobchonghwa bogo [Report for the works of Central Committee at the 6th Party Convention], Dated on 10 October 1980 (Pyongyang: Chosun Labour Party Press, 1980), 86- 87.

²⁷ Zambia was named Northern Rhodesia for the same reason.

²⁸ Brian Raftopoulos, Alois Mlambo, and et al., Becoming Zimbabwe edited by Brian Raftopoulos and Alois Mlambo (Weaver Press: Harare, 2009), 39–74.

²⁹ Raftopoulos, op. cit., 79.

³⁰ Andrew Norman, Mugabe: Teacher, Revolutionary, Tyrant (Stroud: History Press, 2008), 52.

³¹ Raftopoulos, op. cit., 110–111.

³² Raftopoulos, Alois Mlambo, and et al., op. cit., 112- 114.

³³ Norman, op. cit., 50.

³⁴ ‘Relations between North Korea- African nations, 1975–76,’ The Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea 725. 1 XA.

³⁵ Pyongyang Times, 22 March 1975; ‘Political Situation of Eastern Africa, 1979,’ The Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 772. XW.

³⁶ Norman, op. cit., 61.

³⁷ "Report on Soviet Delegation to Tanzania, Zambia, Mozambique and Angola," 6 February 1978, History and Public Policy Programme Digital Archive, SAPMO-BArch; Translated for CWIHP by Daniel Rozas. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/121060; Simbi Mubako, ‘The Quest for Unity in the Zimbabwe Liberation Movement,’ A Journal of Opinion, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Spring, 1975), 9.

³⁸ Keith Somerville, ‘The U.S.S.R. and Southern Africa since 1976,’ The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Mar., 1984), 92.

³⁹ William Cyrus Reeds, ‘International Politics and National Liberation: ZANU and the Politics of ContestedSovereignty in Zimbabwe,’ African Studies Review, Vol. 36, No. 2 (Sep., 1993), 40.

⁴⁰ ‘Relations between North Korea- African nations, 1975- 76,’ The Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, Class No. 725. 1 XA..; Hannes Wessels., PK van der Byl : African statesman (Johannesburg : 30° South, 2010), 130.

⁴¹ Raftopoulos, op. cit., 147.

⁴² The Anglo-American proposals were first explained in early August 1977. See Warren. Christopher to US Embassies (Canada, France, FRG), 9 August 1977, ‘Rhodesia: Approach. to Host Governments,’ NSA, South Africa: The Making of US Policy, 1962–1989, #00769.

⁴³ Norman, op. cit., 63.

⁴⁴ ‘Relations between North Korea- African nations, 1978,’ The Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 725.1 A.

⁴⁵ ‘Dialogue with President of Zambia, 6 April 1980.’ Kim Il Sung Jeonjip [Complete Works of Kim Il Sung] vol. 71. (Pyongyang: Chosun Labour Party press, 2006), 60. North Korea did not publicise the dialogue between Kim and Mugabe in 1978. But during his talk with Kenneth Kaunda, then president of Zambia, in 1980, he introduced what he and Mugabe had talked about in 1978. For Zimbabwe’s perspectives toward the meeting between Kim and Mugabe, see ZANU, "The State of the Party." Zimbabwe News 10:3 (May and June, 1978).

⁴⁶ For example, the Bulgarian president Todor Zhivkov promised to help the Zimbabwean liberation forces. See ‘Minutes of Todor Zhivkov – Robert Mugabe Conversation, Sofia,’ 29 July 1979, History and Public Policy Programme Digital Archive, Central State Archive, Sofia, Fond 378-B, Record 1, File 523. Translated by Assistant Professor Kalina Bratanova; Edited by Dr. Jordan Baev and obtained by the Bulgarian Cold War Research Group. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111111

⁴⁷ Nancy Mitchell, ‘Tropes of the Cold War: Jimmy Carter and Rhodesia,’ Cold War History,Vol. 7, No.2, (May 2007), 9.

⁴⁸ Norman, op. cit., 74.

⁴⁹ Mark Chona, (Former Special Advisor for Political Affairs to President Kenneth Kaunda, 1968–80) Interview by Dr. Sue Onslow, http://www.commonwealthoralhistories.org/2016/interview-with-mark-chona/, posted on 22 March 2016, access on 5 January 2017.

⁵⁰ Dumiso Dabengwa, op. cit., 35.

⁵¹ K. P. Yap, ‘Uprooting the weeds: Power, ethnicity and violence in the Matabeleland conflict,’ (Phd Thesis, University of Amsterdam, 2001), 113.

⁵² Norman, op. cit., 76.

⁵³ Ian D. Smith, Bitter Harvest: The Great Betrayal (London: Blake Publishing, 2001), 371.

⁵⁴ Paul Moorcraft, Mugabe’s War Machine: Saving or Savaging Zimbabwe? (South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books Ltd., 2011), 95.

⁵⁵ ‘Report to the Political Bureau on the Korean Workers’ Party’s 6th Congress and on the celebrations of the 35th anniversary of the foundation of the KWP,’ 16 October 1980, History and Public Policy Programme Digital Archive, MNL OL XIV-J-1-j Korea 25–005249/1980. Obtained by North Korean Materials Archive, IFES, Kyungnam University, and translated by Imre Májer. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/123775.

⁵⁶ ‘The dispatch of North Korean military advisors to Zimbabwe, 1981,’ Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 725.1ZB, Roll 2011–0034-0001, File 1, Frames 1–129.

⁵⁷ In fact, North Korea also invited a number of officials from the USSR, PRC, and other Socialist states in the Third World as well as Mugabe. During the ceremony for the 35th anniversary of the foundation of the KWP, Kim made sure he continued to support Third World revolution along with Moscow and Beijing. For this, see footnote 45. Regarding the impact of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan on Soviet-North Korean relations, see Young C. Kim, ‘North Korea in 1980: The Son also Rises,’ Asian Survey, Vol. 21 No. 1, (Jan., 1981), 112–124.

⁵⁸ Dr. James Hoare, then Head of Chancery in the British embassy in Seoul, also confirms that there was a general interest in Britain in the links that seemed to be developing between the newly-independent Zimbabwe and North Korea, as indicated in his letter of August 1981. Dr. James Hoare (a former diplomat in the British Foreign Office, now retired, and a Research Associate at The School of Oriental and African Studies), interviewed by the author, 3 January 2017.

⁵⁹ ‘Nothing Sinister About the Fifth Brigade,’ The Herald (Harare). 21 October 1981.

⁶⁰ Moorcraft, op. cit., 101.

⁶¹ Raftopoulos, op. cit., 184.

⁶² Timothy Scarnecchia, op. cit. 92.

⁶³ In addition to its alliance with FRELIMO, Harare seems to be motivated to take a part in this joint operation because of its need to maintain logistical access to the port of Beira, as the operation of Umtali-Beira railway was sabotaged by RENAMO. In Mozambique, North Korean advisers also trained an elite counter-insurgency brigade known as the Clean Brigade. Along with the Clean Brigade, the Fifth Brigade of Zimbabwe appeared to take a part in a joint FRELIMO-Zimbabwean operation against RENAMO guerrillas. On North Korean training of the Fifth Brigade and the Clean Brigade for the struggle against RENAMO, Joseph S. Bermudez, Jr., Terrorism: The North Korean Connection (New York: Crane Russak, 1990), 87–88 and 93–94; On Zimbabwe’s involvement in the Mozambican civil war, Moorcraft, op. cit., 119- 127.

⁶⁴ Joseph Hanlon, Gukurahundi in Zimbabwe: A Report on the Disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands, 1980–1988 (London: Hurst and Company, 2007), 90–91.

⁶⁵ ‘Mugabe threatens war vets,’ The Zimbabwe Independent, 10 June 2016.

⁶⁶ ‘Letter from President Ronald Reagan to Chairman of Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate,’ 5 November 1981, Washington, USA, Box CO 129 (Zimbabwe), (024000- 047999), WHORM Subject File, Ronald Reagan Library, Simi Valley, CA, USA.

⁶⁷ Moorcraft, op. cit., 101.

⁶⁸ Norman, op. cit., 78.

⁶⁹ Sue Onslow and Sean Redding, op. cit., 66.

⁷⁰ ‘Zimbabwe shows new Red Arms,’ The Star, 22 March 1983.

⁷¹ The Pyongyang Times, Nov. 17, 1982.

⁷² ‘The dispatch of North Korean military advisors to Zimbabwe, 1981,’ Diplomatic Archive of the Republic of Korea, 725.1ZB, Roll 2011–0034-0001, File 1, Frames 1–129.

⁷³ ‘The dispatch of North Korean military advisors to Zimbabwe, 1981,’ Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 725.1ZB.

⁷⁴ North Korea’s arms sales were estimated at USD 1.8 billion between 1978 and 1982. For details, see Stephen Goose, The Military Situation on the Korean Peninsula’, in John Sullivan and Roberta Foss (eds), Two Koreas—One Future?, Lanham, MD, University Press of America, 1987, 55–94.; his does not necessarily mean that he entirely lost his interest in Third World diplomacy: Kim became reluctant to provide financial support but was still willing to provide technical support for the military, agriculture, and/or economy ‘Dialogue with President of Mozambique, in May 1978,’ Kim Il Sung Jeonjip [Complete Works of Kim Il Sung] vol. 67. (Pyongyang: Chosun Labour Party press, 2006), 60.

⁷⁵ ‘Promoting improvement of relations with African nations without diplomatic relations, 1982,’ Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 722.2, Roll 2012–0006, File 2, Frames 1–128.

⁷⁶ Vladimir Shubin, The Hot ‘Cold War’: The USSR in Southern Africa (London: Pluto Press, 2009), 187–188.

⁷⁷ ‘The visit of Zimbabwe major figures in economic affairs to Korea, 8–12 September 1982,’ Diplomatic Archive of Republic of Korea, 761. 422 ZB, Roll 2072–0074, File 1, Frames 1–138.

⁷⁸ Ibid.

⁷⁹ Ibid.

⁸⁰ This diplomatic action of Zimbabwe would have also been influenced by other African states which had a similar diplomatic stance between the two Koreas, e.g. Congo-Brazzaville, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania, and Mozambique. These states established diplomatic relations with the ROK between 1990 and 1993.

⁸¹ Mitchell, op.cit., 265.

⁸² Gills, Korea vs. Korea, 207.

⁸³ http://cns.miis.edu/nam/documents/Official_Document/8th_Summit_FD_Harare_Declaration_1986_Whole.pdf

⁸⁴ On Zimbabwe’s role in the Harare summit and North Korea’s failed efforts to achieve a pro-DPRK resolution, see Gillian Gunn, ‘The Nonaligned Summit: Behind the Rhetoric,’ CSIS Africa Notes No. 63 (1986), 1–9; and Adrian Buzo, The Guerilla Dynasty: Politics and Leadership in North Korea (London: I.B.Tauris, 1999), 159.

⁸⁵ Charles K. Armstrong, Tyranny of the Weak, 234–239; Sergey Radchenko, ‘Inertia and Change: Soviet Policy toward Korea, 1985–1991’, in The Cold War in East Asia, 1945–1991, ed. Hasegawa Tsuyoshi (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Centre Press, 2011), 289.

⁸⁶ ‘Chinese pledge to 20 billion dollars of aids to Africa’, Kyunghyang Sinmun, 19 July 2012, http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201207192148295&code=970204

⁸⁷ Wang Xiaolin, Liu Qianqian, China-Africa Cooperation: A new approach to improve development effectiveness, Guojiwenti Yanjiu (International Studies), 2012, No. 5 (Issue 151), (in Chinese) 69–81.

⁸⁸ Robert I. Rotberg, China Into Africa (Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2008), 55.