‘Cruising toward nuclear danger’: Canadian anti-nuclear activism, Pierre Trudeau’s peace mission, and the transatlantic partnership

Abstract

In March 1982, news broke that the US Air Force planned to test cruise missiles in Canada. The issue brought the Euromissiles Crisis home to Canada, as Canadians took to the streets in record numbers to oppose the tests. Anti-nuclear activists linked their ‘refuse the cruise’ protests to anti-nuclear demonstrations taking place across the West. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau too saw testing in a transatlantic context, insisting they were part of Canada’s NATO obligations. Neither European nor American, the Canadians had an unusual place in NATO. Often, this translated to being completely ignored: transatlantic issues, including the decade-long Euromissiles Crisis, tended to be seen as US–Western European issues. This article considers the ways in which the Euromissiles Crisis came home to Canada and situates Canada in a broader transatlantic landscape. The Euromissiles Crisis framed Canadian debates over cruise missile testing, encouraging activists and politicians to think about how the threat of nuclear war could be reduced.

Keywords:

• Canada
• Euromissiles Crisis
• NATO
• protest movements
• transatlantic relations

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Robert Bothwell, Simon Miles, Timothy Sayle, and the anonymous reviewers at Cold War History for their comments and suggestions. I would also like to thank the participants and organisers of the Transatlantic Studies Association’s annual meeting and the London School of Economics–George Washington University–University of California at Santa Barbara Graduate Student Conference on the Cold War at which I presented earlier versions of this work. Lastly, I am grateful to the staff at Library and Archives Canada, particularly the Access to Information analysts without whom this project would not have been possible.

Notes

‘Cruising toward nuclear danger,’ 18 March 1982, Globe and Mail.

¹ Pacific Tribune photograph, ‘1983 Peace Walk,’ 23 April 1983, Simon Fraser University Archives (SFUA), Pacific Tribune Photograph Collection (PTPC), http://digital.lib.sfu.ca/pt-3955/1983-peace-walk accessed 27 February 2017; Pacific Tribune photograph, ‘Walk for Peace, Head of March,’ SFUA, PTPC, http://digital.lib.sfu.ca/pt-192/walk-peace-head-march accessed 27 February 2017.

² Kevin Cox, ‘80,000 Rally Across Nation Against Cruise,’ 25 April 1983, Globe and Mail; ‘Cruise Missile Plans Protested in Canada,’ 25 April 1983, New York Times.

³ News of the talks only leaked because of a seemingly unrelated press inquiry regarding the low purchase price for the Canadian government to buy the CF-18 aircraft. One US Air Force officer made an off-the-cuff remark to a Canadian journalist that the price reflected the government’s willingness to let the Air Force test cruise missiles in Canada: John Clearwater, ‘Just Dummies’: Cruise Missile Testing in Canada (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2006), 14; Don Sellar, ‘How Canada Took The Cruise,’ in The Prevention of Nuclear War, ed. Thomas L. Perry Jr. (Altona: Friesen Publishers, 1983), 195.

⁴ Wendy Jackson, ‘Peace Activist Dedicates Life to Disarmament,’ 18 June 1980, Ottawa Citizen, reprinted in The Dismantler 2, no. 2, William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections, McMaster University Library (MUL), Canadian Peace Congress fonds (CPCF), Box 14, ‘Other Organisations – Circulates + Printed – Disarmament’ folder.

⁵ Ernie Regehr, ‘The Canadian Churches Respond to Militarism,’ International Review of Mission 71, no. 283 (1982): 358.

⁶ ‘Grassroots Support Disarmament Key,’ 26 April 1980, Ottawa Citizen, reprinted in The Dismantler 2, no. 3, MUL, CPCF, Box 14, ‘Other Organisations – Circulates + Printed – Disarmament’ folder.

⁷ See, for example, Robert Redford, UNSSOD II and Canada: The United Nations Special Session on Disarmament May/June 1982: A Canadian Perspective, 2.

⁸ Brian Bow, ‘Defence Dilemmas: Continental Defence from Bomarc to BMD,’ Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 15, no. 1 (2009): 40–59; Christopher Kirkey, ‘Negotiating the 1983 Canada–United States Agreement for the Test and Evaluation of US defence systems in Canada,’ Journal of Canadian Studies/Revue d’Études canadiennes 32, no. 4 (1997/98): 94; J. L. Granatstein, ‘Staring Into the Abyss,’ in Towards a New World: Readings in the History of Canadian Foreign Policy, ed. J. L. Granatstein (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1992), 53.

⁹ J.L. Granatstein and Robert Bothwell, Pirouette: Pierre Trudeau and Canadian Foreign Policy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 363.

¹⁰ Brett Thompson, ‘Pierre Elliott Trudeau’s Peace Mission: 25 Years On,’ International Journal 64, no. 4 (2009): 1121; Greg Donaghy, ‘The “Ghost of Peace”: Pierre Trudeau’s Search for Peace, 1982–84,’ Peace Research 39, nos. 1/2 (2007): 38–57; Granatstein and Bothwell, Pirouette, 364–76.

¹¹ See, Kyle Harvey, American Anti-Nuclear Activism, 1975–1990 (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Holger Nehring and Benjamin Ziemann, ‘Do all Paths Lead to Moscow? The NATO Dual-Track Decision and the Peace Movement – A Critique,’ Cold War History 12, no. 1 (Feb. 2012): 1–24; Leopoldo Nuti et al. eds., The Euromissile Crisis and the End of the Cold War (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2015); Paul Rubinson, ‘The Global Effects of Nuclear Winter: Science and Antinuclear Protest in the United States and the Soviet Union During the 1980s,’ Cold War History 14, no. 1 (2014): 47–69; Angela Santese, ‘Ronald Reagan, the Nuclear Freeze Campaign, and the Nuclear Scare of the 1980s,’ The International History Review (2016): 1–25; Giles Scott-Smith, ‘A Dutch Dartmouth: Ernst van Eeghen’s Private Campaign to Defuse the Euromissiles Crisis,’ New Global Studies 8, no. 1 (2014): 141–52; Gerhard Wettig, ‘The Last Soviet Offensive in the Cold War: Emergence and Development of the Campaign Against NATO Euromissiles, 1979–1983,’ Cold War History 9, no. 1 (2009): 79–110.

¹² Canadian anti-nuclear movements including opposition to cruise missile testing can be found in surveys of the peace movement: April Carter, Peace Movements: International Protest and World Politics Since 1945 (London: Routledge, 2014), 167–8; Lawrence S. Wittner, The Struggle Against the Bomb, vol. 3, Toward Nuclear Abolition: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1971 to the Present (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 198–201.

¹³ ‘Nasty Confrontation in Ottawa Mars Day of Anti-Cruise Protests,’ 12 March 1984, Globe and Mail.

¹⁴ Regehr, ‘The Canadian Churches Respond to Militarism,’ 356.

¹⁵ ‘Missile Test Plan Meets Opposition in Grand Centre,’ 29 March 1982, Globe and Mail.

¹⁶ Ian Mulgrew, ‘MacGuigan is Spat on During B.C. Protest,’ March 29, 1982, Globe and Mail.

¹⁷ ‘International Canada: The Events of April and May 1982,’ Global Affairs Canada Digital Library (GACDL), http://gac.canadiana.ca/view/ooe.b1557737E_012/20?r=0&s=1 accessed 2 March 2017.

¹⁸ ‘Opponents on March against Cruise Testing,’ 1 November 1982, Globe and Mail.

¹⁹ ‘Remembrance Day 1981,’ Nov. 1981, MUL, CPCF, Box 18, ‘Other Organisations – Circulars + Printed – Cruise Missile’ folder.

²⁰ ‘Canadian Disarmament Information Service,’ March 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 2, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/3/canadian-disarmament-information-service accessed 21 February 2017.

²¹ Lynn Harrison, ‘Queen’s Park Peace Camp,’ The Peace Calendar 1, no. 5, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/31/queens-park-peace-camp, accessed 21 February 2017; ‘Network News,’ November 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 10, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/115/network-news accessed 21 February 2017.

²² One of the marchers finished it in a wheelchair after doctors warned she could lose all feeling in her legs if she continued marching: Robert Penner, ‘The Cold Lake Walk,’ May 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 3, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/24/the-cold-lake-walk accessed 21 February 2017.

²³ Beth Richards, ‘Cruise Tests are International Issue,’ Aug. 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 7, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/56/cruise-tests-are-international-issue accessed 21 February 2017.

²⁴ ‘Griffiss AFB Protest Walk,’ July 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 6, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/41/griffiss-afb-protest-walk accessed 21 February 2017.

²⁵ Michael Fox, ‘The Costs of Planning for Armageddon,’ Queen’s Quarterly 89, no. 2 (1982): 465.

²⁶ The French version, Si Cette Planete vous tient a coeur, had its launch in Montreal in March 1983: ‘Resources,’ April 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 3, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/17/resources accessed 21 February 2017.

²⁷ Caron to PM Delegation Delhi, ‘The Day After: Two Days Later,’ 22 November 1983, Library and Archives Canada (LAC), RG25, vol. 25338, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 11.

²⁸ ‘Brief to the Progressive Conservative Task Force on Arms Control and Disarmament,’ 27 February 1984, University of Toronto Archives (UTARMS), Ursula M. Franklin fonds (B1996–0004), Box 039, ‘Presentation to a Task Force’ folder.

²⁹ Bob Penner, ‘October Peak for Peace Campaigns,’ August 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 7, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/58/october-peak-for-peace-campaigns accessed 21 February 2017.

³⁰ Activists at the Greenham Common Women’s Peace Camp, for instance, sang a ‘refuse the cruise’ protest song: ‘Refuse the Cruise,’ The Women’s Library–London School of Economics Archives (TWL–LSE), Greenham Common Collection (5GCC), B/15.

³¹ UofT Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament / United Campuses to Prevent Nuclear War, ‘Cruise Missile Policy Statement,’ February 1983, UTARMS, Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament fonds (B1983–0029), Box 001, ‘Corresp.’ folder; Jon Spencer, ‘The Cruise Missile: A Simple Analysis,’ The Peace Calendar 1, no. 9, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/109/the-cruise-missile-a-simple-analysis accessed 21 February 2017.

³² Draft postcard text to Trudeau, UTARMS, B1983–0029, Box 001, ‘Corresp.’ folder.

³³ UofT Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament/United Campuses to Prevent Nuclear War, ‘Cruise Missile Policy Statement,’ February 1983, UTARMS, B1983–0029, Box 001, ‘Corresp.’ folder.

³⁴ Bernard T. Feld, ‘The Hands Move Closer to Midnight,’ The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 37, no. 1 (1981): 1.

³⁵ Reagan remarks, ‘Remarks and a Question-and-Answer Session at a Working Luncheon with Out-of-Town Editors,’ 16 October 1981, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Ronald Reagan 1981, ed. Wilma P. Greene et al. (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1982), 956–7.

³⁶ UofT Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament/United Campuses to Prevent Nuclear War, ‘Cruise Missile Policy Statement,’ February 1983, UTARMS, B1983–0029, Box 001, ‘Corresp.’ folder.

³⁷ Franklin to MacGuigan, 14 December 1981, UTARMS, B1996–0004, Box 039, ‘Letter to Mark MacGuigan, Minister of External Affairs 14 Dec 1981’ folder.

³⁸ ‘Rally Against Defence Industry Seminar,’ 22 November 1982, SFUA, PTPC, http://digital.lib.sfu.ca/pt-3043/rally-against-defencedefense-industry-seminar-robson-square accessed 7 November 2017.

³⁹ ‘Peace Events,’ April 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 3, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/11/peace-events accessed 23 February 2017.

⁴⁰ Adam Kahane, Robert Kay, Luis Sobrino, and Andrew Spence, ‘The Cruise Missile: A Canadian Perspective,’ in The Prevention of Nuclear War, 191.

⁴¹ M.V. Naidu, ‘Cruise Missiles in Canada: Suffocation Through Rejuvenation?,’ Peace Research 15, no. 1 (1983): i.

⁴² Bryan Palmer, ‘The Empire Strikes Back: Reflections on the Arms Race,’ in Roots of Peace: The Movement Against Militarism in Canada, ed. Eric Shragge, Ronald Babin, and Jean-Guy Vaillancourt (Toronto: Between the Lines, 1986), 39.

⁴³ Paul Cappon, ‘Why the Cruise Missile must be Barred from Canada,’ 8 March 1983, Globe and Mail.

⁴⁴ Robert Matas, ‘MacGuigan Defends Plan: Testing of Cruise Missile “For Canada’s Sake,” too,’ 19 March 1982, Globe and Mail.

⁴⁵ Record of the United Nations General Assembly, Tenth Special Session, 6th Plenary Meeting, 26 May 1978, Archives of the United Nations, A/S-10/PV.6, http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/S-10/PV.6, 95. On the strategy of suffocation, see Paul Meyer, ‘Pierre Trudeau and the “Suffocation” of the Nuclear Arms Race,’ International Journal 71, no. 3 (2016): 393–408 accessed 18 February 2017.

⁴⁶ Kosta Tsipis, ‘An American Responds,’ The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 39, no. 8 (1983): 3–4.

⁴⁷ Naidu, ‘Cruise Missiles in Canada,’ iv.

⁴⁸ Allan Gotlieb, The Washington Diaries (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart Ltd., 2006), 130.

⁴⁹ Phillip Abrahams, ‘Cruise Missile Testing-Update,’ March 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 2, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/4/cruise-missile-testing-update accessed 22 February 2017.

⁵⁰ Cartoon (Uluschak, Canada), The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 39, no. 8 (1983): 4.

⁵¹ ‘Peace Groups Plan to Seek Injunction: Canada agrees to Test U.S. Cruise Missile,’ 16 July 1983, Globe and Mail.

⁵² Robert Matas, ‘MacGuigan Defends Plan: Testing of Cruise Missile “for Canada’s sake,” too,’ 19 March 1982, Globe and Mail.

⁵³ Department of External Affairs communiqué, ‘Agreement with the United States of America on Test and Evaluation of US Defence Systems in Canada,’ 10 February 1983, The Testing of Defence Systems in Canada (Ottawa: Department of External Affairs, 1983), 53–4.

⁵⁴ Pierre Trudeau, ‘Canada’s Position on Testing Cruise Missiles and on Disarmament,’ 9 May 1983, GACDL, http://gac.canadiana.ca/view/ooe.sas_19830509AES/1?r=0&s=1 accessed 1 March 2017.

⁵⁵ Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Memoirs (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, Ltd., 1993), 334.

⁵⁶ Sheldon Gordon, ‘Cruise Missile Test Vital, Schmidt Says,’ 17 May 1983, Globe and Mail.

⁵⁷ ‘They’d be Just Dummies, Defence Minister Looks at Cruise Missile Issue,’ 12 March 1982, Chronicle Journal.

⁵⁸ Carole Giangrande, The Nuclear North: The People, The Regions and The Arms Race (Toronto: House of Anansi Press, 1983), 186.

⁵⁹ Eudora Pendergrast, ‘Groups Calls for Referendum,’ September 1983, The Peace Calendar 1, no. 8, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/69/group-calls-for-referendum accessed 22 February 2017.

⁶⁰ Després to Brussels et al., ‘Canadian Policy on Nuclear Weapons,’ 20 October 1982, LAC, RG25, vol. 12587, file 27-11-1, part 4; Cameron to FPR, ‘Nuclear Weapons in Canada,’ 6 November 1981, LAC, RG25, vol. 12587, file 27-11-1, part 4.

⁶¹ McNee to PM Delegation Tokyo, ‘PM Initiative: CBC Radio Report 18 Nov,’ 18 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 10.

⁶² Larry Donovan, ‘US Cruise Missile Gets Rough Ride in Western Canada: Ottawa is Ready to Sign Missile Testing Pact but Peace Groups Gear Up,’ 25 January 1983, The Christian Science Monitor.

⁶³ ‘Canadian Attitudes Towards NATO,’ Ronald Reagan Presidential Library (RRPL), Dennis C. Blair Files (DCBF), RAC Box 4, ‘Public Diplomacy 1982 (09/1981–02/1982)’ folder.

⁶⁴ Canadian Delegation at the United Nations to External Affairs, ‘Clarification–NDP Party Representatives–1979 NATO Theatre Nuclear Force Modernization,’ 17 November 1982, LAC, RG25, vol. 12587, file 27-11-1, part 4.

⁶⁵ Geneva to External Affairs, ‘SSEA Visit: Consultations–US Negotiators,’ 2 February 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 28591, file 20-1-2-USA, part 70.

⁶⁶ M.V. Naidu, ‘Canada, NATO and the Cruise Missile,’ Peace Research 15, no. 2 (1983): 1.

⁶⁷ ‘Network Replies to Trudeau,’ April 1983, The Peace Calendar no. 5, http://tpc.peacemagazine.org/33/network-replies-to-trudeau; Judith McKenzie, Pauline Jewett: A Passion for Canada (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1999), 119 accessed 20 February 2017.

⁶⁸ Memorandum for Steiner, ‘Canadian Attitudes Towards NATO,’ RRPL, DCBF, RAC Box 4, ‘Public Diplomacy 1982 (09/1981–02/1982)’ folder.

⁶⁹ ‘Draft: Cruise Missile Testing Mobilization Project Outline,’ 5 January 1983, UTARMS, B1983–0029, Box 001, ‘Cruise Missile Testing Project Mobilisation Outline 1.5.1983 (draft)’ folder.

⁷⁰ Eric Shragge, Ronald Babin, and Jean-Guy Vaillancourt, ‘Introduction,’ in Roots of Peace, 9.

⁷¹ ‘Canada Cool to Cold-Weather Tests for U.S. Missiles,’ 22 March 1982, The Hartford Courant.

⁷² Murray letter to the editor, ‘Cruising Toward Nuclear Danger,’ 18 March 1982, Globe and Mail.

⁷³ ‘Missile Test Plan Meets Opposition in Grand Centre,’ 29 March 1982, Globe and Mail.

⁷⁴ Kevin Klose, ‘U.S. Missile Test Plan Worries Canadians: Planned Cruise Missile Tests Stir Opposition in Canada,’ 28 March 1983, Washington Post.

⁷⁵ Discussion paper, ‘Canada/USA Relations,’ July 1982, LAC, RG25, vol. 28840, file 20-1-2-USA, part 69.

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⁷⁷ Discussion paper, ‘Canada/USA Relations,’ July 1982, LAC, RG25, vol. 28840, file 20-1-2-USA, part 69.

⁷⁸ Leddy to Regan, ‘Briefing for Your Meeting with Mr. John McKinley, President and Chief Executive Officer of Texaco on Wednesday, July 8, at 3:00 p.m.,’ July 7, 1981, Library of Congress (LOC), Donald T. Regan Papers, Box 104, ‘Briefing Papers Jul. 1-Sept. 23, 1981’ folder; MacEachen-Shultz memorandum of conversation, 9:30 am, 25 Oct. 1982, LAC, RG25, vol. 28840, file 20-1-2-USA, part 69.

⁷⁹ Gotlieb, Washington Diaries, 61.

⁸⁰ Pierre Trudeau, ‘Canada’s Position on Testing Cruise Missiles and on Disarmament,’ 9 May 1983, GACDL, http://gac.canadiana.ca/view/ooe.sas_19830509AES/1?r=0&s=1 accessed 1 March 2017.

⁸¹ ‘A “Fireside” Chat with Trudeau,’ 14 May 1983, Toronto Star.

⁸² Pierre Elliott Trudeau, ‘A Peace Initiative from Canada,’ The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 40, no. 1 (Jan. 1984): 15.

⁸³ Thomas Walkom, ‘Grenada Invasion Deals Severe Blow to Trudeau Plans,’ 29 October 1983, Globe and Mail. Trudeau and Thatcher later argued about this topic during Thatcher’s September visit to Canada. In her memoirs, she wrote, ‘What liberal leftists like him seemed unable to grasp was that such acts of brutality as the shooting down of a civilian aircraft were by no means uncharacteristic of the communist system itself’: Margaret Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 321.

⁸⁴ ‘Notes for a Statement by the Deputy Prime Minister and Secretary of State for External Affairs Allan J. MacEachen,’ 3 September 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 8800, file 20-1-2-USSR, part 46.

⁸⁵ Trudeau, ‘A Peace Initiative from Canada,’ 16.

⁸⁶ Trudeau’s reference to the Williamsburg declaration echoed MacEachen’s letter following the final Cabinet agreement to test cruise missiles: MacEachen to Shultz, 15 July 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 18617, file 27-8-USA-3, part 2.

⁸⁷ Trudeau, ‘A Peace Initiative from Canada,’ 18–19.

⁸⁸ Delvoie to Paris, Bonn et al., ‘Prime Minister’s Initiative on Nuclear Tensions—Chicago,’ 4 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 5.

⁸⁹ ‘Notes for Remarks by Prime Minister Trudeau, Groesbeek Canadian War Cemetery, Nijmegen, The Netherlands,’ 11 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 6.

⁹⁰ Hague to Prime Minister’s Task Force (IDDZ), ‘PM Initiative–Groesbeek Ceremony,’ 11 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 7.

⁹¹ ‘Notes For Remarks By The Prime Minister On Peace and Security,’ 13 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 7.

⁹² ‘Press Guidance Proposals to Implement the Strategies of Suffocation and Stabilisation,’ Nov. 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 7.

⁹³ Francis memorandum, ‘Western INF Resolution at UN,’ 15 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 28250, file 27-4-NATO-1-INF, part 5.

⁹⁴ Muriel Duckworth, ‘Lunch with Mr. Trudeau,’ February 1984, UTARMS, B1996–0004, Box 045, ‘Trudeau's 1983 Peace Initiative and Response from the Peace Community 1983–1984’ folder.

⁹⁵ ‘Prime Minister’s Initiative on East-West Relations and International Security,’ Feb. 1984, LAC, RG25, vol. 26958, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 33.

⁹⁶ PM Delegation Delhi to IDDZ, ‘CHOGM and PM Initiative: Goa Declaration on International Security,’ 27 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25338, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 11.

⁹⁷ Thatcher to Reagan, 30 November 1983, Margaret Thatcher Foundation Archive (MTFA), http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/131585 accessed 1 March 2017.

⁹⁸ Delhi to IDDZ, ‘PM Initiative at CHOGM: Sitrep,’ 25 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25338, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 11.

⁹⁹ ‘Five Power Conference,’ RRPL, Ronald Lehman Files (RLF), RAC Box 2, ‘British/French Nuclear Forces, 1983–1984 (2)’ folder.

¹⁰⁰ ‘Critical Nuclear Times,’ 24 November 1983, Chicago Tribune, LAC, RG25, vol. 25338, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 11.

¹⁰¹ Ronald Reagan, The Reagan Diaries, ed. Douglas Brinkley (New York: Harper Collins, 2007), 205.

¹⁰² Noble memorandum, ‘CBC The National — 9 February 1984 Prime Minister Trudeau’s Peace Initiative,’ 10 February 1984, LAC, RG25, vol. 18841, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 31.

¹⁰³ Kollar to MacEachen, 31 January 1984, LAC, RG25, vol. 26958, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 31.

¹⁰⁴ Hill to McFarlane, ‘Trudeau’s “Peace Initiative’,” 16 November 1983, RRPL, RLF, RAC Box 2, ‘British/French Nuclear Forces, 1983–1984 (2)’ folder.

¹⁰⁵ Wardroper to IDDZ, ‘PMs Initiative on East-West Relations,’ 2 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 5.

¹⁰⁶ Schenck to Ottawa, ‘Gespräch des Herrn Bundeskanzlers mit dem kanadischen PM Trudeau am 10.11.1983 in Bonn (18.00–21.00 Uhr),’ Akten zur Auswärtigen Politik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1983 II, eds. Tim Geiger, Matthias Peter, and Mechthild Lindemann (Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2014), 1751.

¹⁰⁷ Tokyo to External Affairs, ‘PM’s Initiative on Peace and Security–Japanese Views,’ 23 February 1984, LAC, RG25, vol. 26958, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 33.

¹⁰⁸ External Affairs to Canberra, ‘PM Initiative and CHOGM: Australian Views,’ 4 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 5.

¹⁰⁹ Grinius memorandum, ‘Prime Minister Trudeau’s Initiative on East-West Relations and International Security,’ Nov. 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 10.

¹¹⁰ Trudeau, ‘Peace Initiative from Canada,’ 18.

¹¹¹ Andrew Orkin, ‘Trudeau Plans to “Jolt” Superpowers with a Peace Campaign,’ 31 October 1983, The Christian Science Monitor, LAC, RG 25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 5.

¹¹² Nostitz to IDDZ, ‘P.M. Initiative on East-West Relations: USA Response,’ 15 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 8.

¹¹³ Bartleman to Shenstone, ‘Canada/US Relations,’ 10 February 1984, LAC, RG25, vol. 26958, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 31.

¹¹⁴ ‘Trudeau Tries the Peace Issue,’ 14 November 1983, Business Week, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 5.

¹¹⁵ Washington to External Affairs, ‘PMs Speech: USA Response to PMs Let,’ 2 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 5.

¹¹⁶ The Journal broadcast, ‘Pierre Trudeau’s Push for Cold War Peace,’ 15 December 1983, CBC Digital Archive, http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/trudeaus-push-for-cold-war-peace accessed 15 February 2017.

¹¹⁷ McNee to PM Delegation Tokyo, ‘PM Initiative: CBC Radio Report 18 Nov,’ 18 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 10; Noble to file, ‘CBC News 0800 Nov 18 – Prime Minister Trudeau’s Peace Plan,’ 18 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 10.

¹¹⁸ Buckley-Jones to file, ‘CTV National – 18 November PM’s Peace Plan – Canadian Aides React to USA Remarks on Canadian NATO Contribution,’ 21 November 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25337, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 10.

¹¹⁹ Robert Bothwell, Alliance and Illusion: Canada and the World, 1945–1984 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2007), 385.

¹²⁰ Gotlieb, Washington Diaries, 186.

¹²¹ MAE memorandum, ‘La mission de paix de M. Trudeau,’ 2 January 1984, Archives Diplomatiques (AD), 1930INVA/5643, ‘Canada’ folder; The Journal broadcast, ‘Cruise Missile Testing Coming to Canada,’ 15 December 1983, CBC Digital Archives, http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1983-cruise-missile-testing-coming-to-canada accessed 15 February 2017.

¹²² The Journal broadcast, ‘Cruise Missile Testing Coming to Canada,’ 15 December 1983, CBC Digital Archives, http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1983-cruise-missile-testing-coming-to-canada accessed 15 February 2017.

¹²³ Thomson to Franklin, 4 March 1984, UTARMS, B1996–0004, Box 045, ‘Trudeau’s 1983 Peace Initiative and response from the peace community 1983–1984’ folder.

¹²⁴ Lunam and Lunam to Trudeau, 25 October 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 25338, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 11. Emphasis in original.

¹²⁵ ‘Nuclear War: What Can I Do? Back Canada’s Peace Initiative!,’ 19 December 1983, Globe and Mail, UTARMS, B1996–0004, Box 045, ‘Trudeau's 1983 Peace Initiative and Response from the Peace Community 1983–1984’ folder; Draft text, ‘Support Canada’s “Third Track” to Peace,’ UTARMS, B1996–0004, Box 045, ‘Trudeau’s 1983 Peace Initiative and Response from the Peace Community 1983–1984’ folder.

¹²⁶ Noble memorandum, ‘CBC The National — 9 February 1984 Prime Minister Trudeau’s Peace Initiative,’ 10 February 1984, LAC, RG25, vol. 26958, file 28-6-1-TRUDEAU PEACE MISSION, part 31.

¹²⁷ Beth A. Fischer, ‘The Trudeau Peace Initiative and the End of the Cold War: Catalyst or Coincidence?,’ International Journal 49, no. 3 (1994): 613–34.

¹²⁸ Gotlieb, Washington Diaries, 49.

¹²⁹ McCardle memorandum, ‘Norwegian Ambassador’s Call,’ October 30, 1979, LAC, RG25, vol. 22105, vol. 27–4-NATO-1–16, part 39; Brussels (NATO) to External Affairs, ‘NPG: TNF Modernization–Cdn Views,’ 5 January 1978, LAC, RG25, vol. 22103, file 27-4-NATO-1–16, part 30.

¹³⁰ MAE memorandum, ‘“L’initiative de paix’ de M. Trudeau,” 22 June 1984, MAEE, 1930INVA/5643, ‘Canada’ folder.

¹³¹ Washington to External Affairs, ‘Bush Visit–Mtg with Vice President,’ March 18, 1983, LAC, RG25, vol. 28591, file 20-1-2-USA, part 71.