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Abstract
Soviet newspapers responded to Western media attention to the persecution of human rights defenders in the USSR not only by vilifying these activists as ‘renegades’, but also by expressing solidarity with the African-American targets of state repression in the United States. Soviet journalists focused on the persecution that US Black Power activists such as Angela Davis and members of the Black Panther Party faced in the late 1960s and early 1970s in order to challenge the moral high ground that US officials claimed with regard to upholding civil rights in the face of unwanted domestic dissent.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Barbara Walker, Maria Bukar-Dakar, Judson L. Jeffries, Benjamin Young, and Olga Bertelsen for all their helpful comments and suggestions.
Notes
1 I. Aleksandrov, ‘The Poverty of Anticommunism,’ Pravda, 17 December 1970, 4 in Current Digest of the Soviet Press (CDSP) XXII, no. 49 (1971): 16–8. Andrei Amal’rik, an activist named in the article, claims that Mikhail Suslov, the Politburo’s chief ideologist, likely wrote the article; Notes of a Revolutionary, trans. Guy Daniels (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1982), 146–7.
2 Valentina Nikolaeva-Tereshkova, ‘I khotia ia s nei nikogda ne vstrechalas’,’ Izvestiia, 18 December 1970, 2. On Tereshkova’s accomplishment, see Sue Bridger, ‘The Cold War and the Cosmos: Valentina Tereshkova and the First Women’s Space Flight,’ Women in the Khrushchev Era, ed. M. Ilic, S. Reid, and L. Atwood (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 222–37.
3 Roy Aleksandrovich Medvedev, Iurii Andropov: neizvestnoe ob izvestnom (Moscow: Vremia, 2004), 146.
4 Scholars and contemporaries identify the trial of Andrei Siniavskii and Yulii Daniel, and Stokely Carmichael’s invocation of ‘Black Power’ during the March against Fear as marking the emergence of both movements. See Barbara Walker, ‘Moscow Human Rights Defenders Look West,’ Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 9, no 4 (2008): 905–27; Valery Chalidze, To Defend These Rights: Human Rights and the Soviet Union, trans. Guy Daniels (New York: Random House, 1974), 55; and Peniel Joseph, Waiting ‘til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2006).
5 Jeremi Suri, Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Détente (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003); Vladislav Zubok, A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).
6 ‘Vypiska iz prikaza Pred. KGB N0 0097 ot 25.07.67,’ Vladimir Bukovsky Archive http://bukovsky-archives.net/pdfs/sovter74/kgb67-4.pdf (Last accessed 19 October 2016). On the Fifth Directorate’s original six departments, see Filipp Bobkov, Vladimir Kriuchkov, and Viacheslav Shironin, Andropov: KGB otvechaet za vse (Moscow: Algoritm, 2012), 148, 154–5.
7 Ludmilla Alexeyeva, Soviet Dissent: Contemporary Movements for National, Religious, and Human Rights, trans. Carol Pearce and John Glad (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1985), 9, 16–17, 452; A.B. Bezborodov, M.M. Meier, and E.I. Pivovar, Materialy po istorii dissidentskogo i pravozashchitnogo dvizheniia v SSSR 50-kh-80-kh godov (Moscow: Itsoriko-arkhivnyi Institut RGGU, 1994), 3–4; Joshua Rubenstein and Alexander Gribanov, The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), 100; Viktor Voronkov and Jan Wielgohs, ‘Soviet Russia,’ in Dissent and Opposition in Communist Eastern Europe: Origins of Civil Society and Democratic Transition, ed. D. Pollack and J. Wielgohs (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004), 95–118, 105.
8 COINTELPRO monitored political dissidents from 1956 through 1971. See ‘The FBI’s Covert Action Programme to Destroy the Black Panther Party,’ Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans, Book III (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976), 187; and Susie Day and Laura Whitehorn, eds., ‘Human Rights in the United States: The Unfinished Story of Political Prisoners and COINTELPRO,’ New Political Science, 23, no. 2 (2001): 285–97.
9 On the ideology of national security, see Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013). On Soviet democracy, see David Priestland, ‘Soviet Democracy, 1917–91,’ European History Quarterly 32, no. 1 (2002): 111–30.
10 Svetlana Savranskaya, ‘Human Rights Movement in the USSR after the Signing of the Helsinki Final Act, and the Reaction of Soviet Authorities,’ in The Crisis of Détente in Europe: From Helsinki to Gorbachev, 1975–1985, ed. L. Nuti (Hoboken: Taylor & Francis, 2008), 26–40. See also Sarah Snyder, Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War: A Transnational History of the Helsinki Process (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), and Daniel Thomas, The Helsinki Effect: International Norms, Human Rights and the Demise of Communism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001). On the demise of Black Power, see Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America (New York: Nation Books, 2016), 410–23.
11 See, for example, Dina Fainberg, ‘Unmasking the Wolf in Sheep’s Clothing: Soviet and American Campaigns against the Enemy’s Journalists,’ Cold War History 15, no. 2 (2015): 155–78; Emma Gilligan, Defending Human Rights in Russia: Sergei Kovalyov, Dissident and Human Rights Commissioner (London: Routledge, 2004); Robert Horvath, ‘Breaking the Totalitarian Ice: The Initiative Group for the Defence of Human Rights in the USSR,’ Human Rights Quarterly 36 (2014): 147–75; Ann Komaromi, ‘Samizdat and Soviet Dissident Politics,’ Slavic Review 71, no. 1 (2012): 70–90, and ‘The Unofficial Field of Late Soviet Culture,’ Slavic Review 66, no. 4 (2007): 605–29; Benjamin Nathans, ‘Talking Fish: On Soviet Dissident Memoirs,’ The Journal of Modern History 87 (2015): 579–614; Walker, ‘Moscow Human Rights,’ 905–27; and Vladislav Zubok, Zhivago’s Children: The Last Russian Intelligentsia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), 259–334.
12 Sarah B. Snyder, ‘The Rise of Human Rights during the Johnson Years,’ in Beyond the Cold War: Lyndon Johnson and the New Global Challenges of the 1960s, ed. F. Gavin and M. Lawrence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 237–60, and ‘Exporting Amnesty International to the United States: Transatlantic Human Rights Activism in the 1960s,’ Human Rights Quarterly 34 (2012): 779–99; Barbara Keys, ‘Congress, Kissinger, and the Origins of Human Rights Diplomacy,’ Diplomatic History 34, no. 5 (2010): 813–51; A. Iriya, P. Goedde, and W.I. Hitchcock, The Human Rights Revolution: An International History (New York: Oxford University Press 2012).
13 See Eric D. Weitz, ‘Self-Determination: How a German Enlightenment Idea Became the Slogan of National Liberation and a Human Right,’ American Historical Review 120, no. 2 (2015): 462–96, 464, 479, 490, 493, 494 n.114. See also Ronald Burke, Decolonization and the Evolution of International Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010).
14 Carol Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African-American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 5–6, 273–4.
15 For the term ‘antipatriot’, see V. Shestov, ‘Democracy and the State under Socialism,’ Pravda, 23 October 1973, 2–3 in CDSP XXV, no. 43 (1973): 12–13.
16 Alexei Kojevnikov, ‘Meeting the Demands of Reason: The Life and Thought of Andrei Sakharov, by Jay Bergman,’ Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 13, no. 1 (2012): 243–50; Sergei Oushakine, ‘The Terrifying Mimicry of Samizdat,’ Public Culture 13, no. 2 (2001): 191–214; Boris Kagarlitsky, ‘1960s East and West: The Nature of the Shestidesiatniki and the New Left,’ boundary 2 36, no. 1 (2009): 95–104; Vladimir Kozlov, ‘The Meaning of Sedition,’ in Sedition: Everyday Resistance in the Soviet Union under Khrushchev and Brezhnev, ed. V. Kozlov, S. Fitzpatrick, and S. Mironenko (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 25–6, 57–60.
17 Some activists adopted the term dissident begrudgingly since that is what foreign journalists called them. See Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs, trans. Richard Lourie (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1990), 361; and Bezborodov, Meier, and Pivovar, Materialy, 4. Regarding the term inakomysliashchie, rights defender Pavel Litvinov claims it sounded preposterous to Russians while Boris Shragin notes that its unpopularity was due in part to its emphasis on thought rather than action. See Litvinov, ‘The Human Rights Movement in the Soviet Union,’ in Essays on Human Rights: Contemporary Issues and Jewish Perspectives, ed. D. Sidorsky (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979), 113–25, 116, and Boris Shragin, The Challenge of the Spirit, trans. P.S. Falla (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1978), 198, 204.
18 Denis Kozlov, The Readers of Novyi Mir: Coming to Terms with the Stalinist Past (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013), 239–62, 243.
19 For the idea of Russia serving as a ‘foil’ for US officials, see David S. Foglesong, The American Mission and the ‘Evil Empire’: The Crusade for a ‘Free Russia’ since 1881 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 164.
20 Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Colour Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 222; Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), 250.
21 ‘FBI’s Covert Action,’ 187–223. On Soviet anti-racism, see Maxim Matusevich, ed., Africa in Russia, Russia in Africa: Three Centuries of Encounters (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2007); and Meredith L. Roman, Opposing Jim Crow: African-Americans and the Soviet Indictment of U.S. Racism, 1928–1937 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012).
22 Kenneth O’Reilly, ‘Racial Matters’: The FBI’s Secret File on Black America, 1960–1972 (New York: The Free Press, 1989), 294.
23 See, for example, Bobkov, Kriuchkov, and Shironin, Andropov, 229–31.
24 For the phraseology, see Foglesong, American Mission, 158, 160.
25 See, for example, Louis Menashe, ‘Confronting Stalin’s Ghost: The Soviet Left Today,’ Ramparts 11, no. 3 (September 1972): 24–55, esp. 27.
26 F. Ovcharenko, ‘Lackeys,’ Komsomol’skaia pravda, 18 January 1968, 3 in CDSP XX, no. 3 (1968): 6–8; T. Aleksandrov and V. Konstantinov, ‘From the Courtroom: Dragged in by the Same Belt,’ Izvestiia, 16 January 1968, 4 in CDSP XX, no. 2 (1968): 5–6; V. Barsov and A. Fedoseyev, ‘The Criminals Have Been Punished,’ Izvestiia, 1 January 1971, 4 in CDSP XXIII, no. 1 (1971): 4–5; ‘Serve the Cause of the Party and People,’ Pravda, 21 June 1972, 1–2 in CDSP XXIV, no. 25 (1972): 19–20; Moskovskaia pravda, 12 October 1968 in Natalia Gorbanevskaya, Red Square at Noon, trans. Alexander Lieven (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), 234. On the press’ depiction of Aleksandr Vol’pin as a ‘scoundrel’ in 1962, see Benjamin Nathans, ‘The Dictatorship of Reason: Aleksandr Vol’pin and the Idea of Rights under “Developed Socialism”,’ Slavic Review 66, no. 4 (2007): 651.
27 Rubenstein and Gribanov, KGB File, 35–6; and Peter Reddaway, ed., Uncensored Russia: Protest and Dissent in the Soviet Union (New York: American Heritage Press, 1972), 32.
28 Editorial, ‘International Relations and the Ideological Struggle,’ Kommunist 14 (September 1973), 3–23 in CDSP XXV, no. 45 (1973): 9–10.
29 ‘Press Conference in the Central House of Journalists,’ Pravda, 6 September 1973, 6 in CDSP XXV, no. 35 (1973): 3–4.
30 Barbara Walker, ‘Pollution and Purification in the Moscow Human Rights Networks of the 1960s and 1970s,’ Slavic Review 68, no. 2 (2009): 376–95, 386–7. In the late 1970s, the press represented Yurii Orlov similarly. See Walter Parchomenko, Soviet Images of Dissidents and Nonconformists (New York: Praeger, 1986), 140, and Philip Boobbyer, Conscience, Dissent, and Reform in Soviet Russia (New York: Routledge 2005), 75.
31 Vera Lashkova and Aleksei Dobrovol’skii were the other two defendants. Ludmilla Alexeyeva and Paul Goldberg, The Thaw Generation: Coming of Age in the Post-Stalin Era (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993), 166. See also Pavel Litvinov, The Trial of the Four: A Collection of Materials on the Case of Galanskov, Ginzburg, Dobrovolsky, and Lashkova, 1967–68, trans. J. Sapiets, H. Sternberg, and D. Weissbort (New York: The Viking Press, 1971).
32 ‘Pamiatnaia zapiska po delu antisovetskoi gruppy Ginzburga, Galanskova, Dobrovol’skogo, Lashkovoi. Podpis’: Shevliagin,’ Vladimir Bukovsky Archive http://bukovsky-archives.net/pdfs/dis60/kgb67-2.pdf (Last accessed 12 December 2016).
33 A. Chakovsky, ‘Reply to a Reader,’ Literaturnaia gazeta, 27 March 1968, 13 in CDSP XX, no. 12 (1968): 7–8, 36; V. Terentyev, ‘Rock Bottom,’ Izvestiia, 10 January 1968, 4 in CDSP XX, no. 2 (1968): 3–5; ‘Open Letter from Brocks Sokolov,’ Izvestiia, 27 February 1968, 4 in CDSP XX, no. 9 (1968): 24; Ovcharenko, ‘Lackeys,’ 3.
34 Vladimir Bukovsky, To Build a Castle: My Life as a Dissenter (New York: The Viking Press, 1977), 196; Aleksandrov, Pravda, 17 December 1970, 4.
35 Ye. Maiorov, ‘At the Trial in Moscow,’ Izvestiia, 31 August 1973, 4 in CDSP XXV, no. 35 (26 September 1973): 2–3; A. Ivanov, ‘Caught in the Act: Roger Leddington’s Hard Life,’ Literaturnaia gazeta, 14 November 1973, 9 in CDSP XXV, no. 45 (1973): 9. Krasin claims that the KGB chose him and Yakir to ‘disgrace’ the movement because they were well known, unstable, and Gulag survivors who would not choose death to avoid shame; Krasin, Sud (New York: Chalidze Publications, 1983), 6, 109–10.
36 A. Chakovsky, ‘About Daring, Real and Sham,’ Sovetskaia Rossiia, 27 January 1968, 2 in CDSP XX, no. 5 (1968): 10–11.
37 Sergei Mikhalkov, ‘Light and Shadow,’ Pravda, 11 May 1968, 3 in CDSP XX, no. 19 (1968): 18–19. See also ‘Sense of Responsibility,’ Literaturnaia gazeta, 3 April 1968, 2 in CDSP XX, no. 15 (1968): 5.
38 See, for example, ‘In the Russian Republic Writers’ Union,’ Literaturnaia gazeta, 12 November 1969, 3 in CDSP XXI, no. 46 (1969): 3; Editorial, ‘The Ideological Struggle: The Writer’s Responsibility,’ Literaturnaia gazeta, 26 June 1968, 5 in CDSP XX, no. 26 (1968): 3–4; and M. Tank, M. Lynkov, I. Shamyakin, I. Melezh, and A. Kulakovsky, ‘In Double Darkness with the Enemies,’ Literaturnaia gazeta, 19 April 1972, 13 in CDSP XXIV, no. 17 (1972): 7–8.
39 ‘From the Opposite Pole,’ Pravda, 4 September 1973, 3, ‘Unworthy of the Title of Scientist,’ Izvestiia, 4 September 1973, 2, and ‘A Position Alien to the People,’ Pravda, 5 September 1973, 3 in CDSP XXV, no. 35 (1973): 7.
40 Pravda, 8 September 1973, 3 in CDSP XXV, no. 35 (1973): 7.
41 See, for example, ‘From the Editors’ Mailbag,’ Literaturnaia gazeta, 12 April 1972, 13 in CDSP XXIV, no. 14 (1972): 3–10.
42 ‘In Moscow Writer’s Organisation: Condemnation of Dereliction, Lack of Principle, Slander,’ Literaturnaia Rossiia, 1 May 1968, 9 in CDSP, XX, no. 17 (1968): 11; ‘Without Lenience,’ Komsomol’skaia pravda, 28 February 1968, 3 in CDSP XX, no. 10 (1968): 11, 30; and K. Petrov, ‘Who is Against Détente?-Reflections on Letters,’ Izvestiia, 1 September 1973, 2 in CDSP XXV, no. 35 (1973): 5–6.
43 Fitzpatrick, ‘Introduction,’ 3.
44 Robert Horvath, Legacy of Soviet Dissent: Dissidents, Democratisation, and Radical Nationalism in Russia (London: Routledge Curzon, 2005), 2–3, 27.
45 Amalrik, Notes, 47, 52, 194, 301, 331; Petro G. Grigorenko, Memoirs, trans. Thomas P. Whitney (New York: W.W. Norton, 1982), 263, 299, 315, 342, 354–5.
46 Document 49, ‘Andropov to Central Committee, 18 February 1973,’ in KGB File, 72, 139; and ‘O provedenii sudebnogo protsessa po delu Ginzburga, Galanskova, Dobrovol’skogo i Lashkovoi. Zapiska KGB i Prokuratury No 2949-A ot 03.12.67,’ Vladimir Bukovsky Archive http://bukovsky-archives.net/pdfs/dis60/kgb67-3.pdf (Last accessed 30 November 2016); ‘Zapiska KGB v TsK No 181-A ot 26.01.68,’ Vladimir Bukovsky Archive, http://bukovsky-archives.net/pdfs/dis60/kgb68-11.pdf (Last accessed 18 January 2017).
47 The first issue documented the protests that the persecution of Ginzburg and Galanskov inspired, and the repression that individuals consequently faced; ‘2. Protesty v sviazi c protsessom,’ ‘3. Repressii v sviazi s protestami,’ Khronika tekushchikh sobyitii, no. 1 (30 April 1968) http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/chr/index.htm (Last accessed 11 February 2017). On the inspiration for the establishment of the Chronicle, see Grigorenko, Memoirs, 341; Alexeyeva and Goldberg, Thaw Generation, 166; and Natalya Gorbanevskaya, ‘The Founding of The Chronicle of Current Events,’ A Chronicle of Human Rights in the USSR, no. 29 January-March 1978 (New York: Khronika Press, 1978), 53, 55. On the Chronicle’s significance, see Voronkov and Wielgohs, ‘Soviet Russia,’ 102; Gilligan, Defending, 2, 12; Bukovsky, Build a Castle, 305; and ‘Dokladnaia zapiska predsedatelia KGB pri SM SSSR i General’nogo prokurora SSSR v TsK KPSS o presechenii pravozashchitnoi deiatel’nosti Yakira P.I., 29 fevralia 1972 g.,’ in Kramola: inakomyslie v SSSR pri Khrushcheve i Brezhneve, 1953–1982 gg. (Moscow: ‘Materik’, 2005), 397–400.
48 Alexeyeva and Goldberg, Thaw Generation, 244. See also Alexei Yurchak, Everything Was Forever, Until It Was No More: The Last Soviet Generation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 106–8, 128–32; and Bukovsky, Build a Castle, 53, 75, 76, 78.
49 Zubok, Zhivago’s Children, 303.
50 Kozlov, ‘Meaning,’ Sedition, 58.
51 Fitzpatrick, ‘Introduction,’ Sedition, 23.
52 Anatoly Marchenko, To Live Like Everyone, trans. Paul Goldberg (New York: Henry Holt, 1989), 56–7.
53 Komaromi, ‘Samizdat,’ 84 (quotation); Alexeyeva, Soviet Dissent, 382, 401–2; Leonid Plyushch, History’s Carnival: A Dissident’s Autobiography, trans. M. Carynnyk (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977), 239–40.
54 D. Kraminov, ‘Crocodile Tears,’ Pravda, 3 March 1968, 4 in CDSP XX, no. 10 (1968): 10–11; Mikhalkov, ‘Light and Shadow,’ 3.
55 Catharine Theimer Nepomnyashchy, Abram Tertz and the Poetics of Crime (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 322–3 n.5.
56 ‘Voice of America Accused in Soviet on LeRoi Jones,’ New York Times, 7 March 1968, 87; Chakovsky, ‘Reply,’ 7–8. Jones later changed his name to Amiri Baraka.
57 Dynamite, ‘Bloods on the Rampage: LeRoi Jones Brutalised,’ Black Panther, 20 July 1967, 11; Douglas Robinson, ‘LeRoi Jones to Get CORE’s Legal Help,’ New York Times, 12 November 1967, 76; ‘Jones Will Begin His Sentence Today,’ New York Times, 6 January 1968, 35.
58 Walter H. Waggoner, ‘Le Roi Jones Sentenced to 2 ½ to 3 Years on Gun Charge,’ New York Times, 5 January 1968, 1, 6.
59 Walter H. Waggoner, ‘LeRoi Jones Wins Retrial in Jersey,’ New York Times, 24 December 1968, 24; ‘Jones is Acquitted of Weapon Charge in Newark Retrial,’ New York Times, 3 July 1969, 18.
60 Jakobi Williams, From the Bullet to the Ballot: The Illinois Chapter of the Black Panther Party and Racial Coalition Politics in Chicago (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 178–80. See also Christian Davenport, Media Bias, Perspective, and State Repression: The Black Panther Party (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), and Jane Rhodes, ‘Fanning the Flames of Racial Hatred: The National Media and the Black Panther Party,’ International Journal of the Press/Politics 4, no. 4 (1999): 95–118.
61 ‘V poslednee vremia,’ Pravda, 25 December 1969, 4; K. Geivandov, ‘Provokatsiia okhranki,’ Pravda, 14 July 1970, 5; ‘SShA: Terror prodolzhaetsia,’ Izvestiia, 30 July 1970, 1; M. Sturua, ‘Prestupleniia rasistov,’ Izvestiia, 26 August 1970, 2; ‘Politseiskii terror,’ Izvestiia, 9 September 1970, 2; ‘Repressii prodolzhaiutsia,’ Pravda, 27 October 1970, 5.
62 N. Kurdiumov, ‘Terror protiv “Chernykh panter”,’ Pravda, 21 December 1969, 4; O. Vasil’ev, ‘Uzakonennoe bezzakonie,’ Izvestiia, 14 June 1970, 2.
63 T. Kolesnichenko, ‘“Streliali, kak po misheni’,” Pravda, 20 September 1970, 5. The Panthers also spoke of the police taking target practice. See ‘Message to the People,’ Black Panther, 14 September 1968, 10; and Price Cumby, ‘Another Black Man Used for Target Practice,’ Black Panther, 1 November 1969, 15.
64 N. Kurdiumov, ‘Politseiskii pogrom v Los-Andzhelese,’ Pravda, 10 December 1969, 5; ‘Terror protiv “chernykh panter”,’ Pravda, 3 January 1970, 1; Gennadii Vasil’ev, ‘“Pantery’ pod udarom,’ Pravda, 14 January 1970, 5; T. Kolesnichenko, ‘Snova okhota na “panter”,’ Pravda, 18 July 1970, 5; ‘Naznachen sudebnyi protsess,’ Pravda, 7 August 1970, 5.
65 ‘Operatsiia unichtozheniia’ prodolzhaetsia,’ Pravda, 18 January 1970, 5; ‘Linchevanie po zakonu,’ Pravda, 29 January 1970, 5; N. Kurdiumov, ‘Rasprava na sentr-strit,’ Pravda, 10 February 1970, 5; ‘Gnevnoe oblichenie rasizma,’ Pravda, 20 February 1970, 4.
66 O. Vasil’ev, ‘Ten’ Makkartizma,’ Izvestiia, 19 November 1970, 2; M. Sturua, ‘Poedinok s reaktsiei,’ Izvestiia, 3 December 1970, 3.
67 M. Sturua, ‘A sud’i kto?,’ Izvestiia, 9 January 1970, 1, 2.
68 ‘Ianki doma i za okeanom,’ Izvestiia, 16 December 1969, 2.
69 Maxim Matusevich, ‘An Exotic Subversive: Africa, Africans and the Soviet Everyday,’ Race & Class 49, no. 4 (2008): 57–81; Fainberg, ‘Unmasking the Wolf,’ 155–78; Kevin McKenna, All the Views Fit to Print: Changing Images of the U.S. in Pravda Political Cartoons, 1917–1991 (New York: Peter Lang, 2001).
70 Robert Hornsby, ‘The Post-Stalin Komsomol and the Soviet Fight for Third World Youth,’ Cold War History 16, no. 1 (2016): 83–100, 85–6; Thomas C. Wolfe, Governing Soviet Journalism: The Press and the Socialist Person After Stalin (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 115, 128.
71 Pero Dagbovie, African-American History Reconsidered (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 158–96; ‘Des Moines Pigs Try to Halt Free Breakfast Programme Through Terror,’ Black Panther, 11 May 1969, 3; ‘Tales of Terror,’ Black Panther, 24 October 1970, 5.
72 Judith Butler, ‘Endangered/Endangering: Schematic Racism and White Paranoia,’ in Reading Rodney King, Reading Urban Uprising, ed. R. Gooding-Williams (New York: Routledge, 1993), 15–22; Thomas Johnson, ‘Black Panthers: Angry Men “At War” with Society,’ New York Times, 15 September 1968, E5; Rhodes, ‘Fanning the Flames,’ 95–118.
73 On Soviet leaders’ interest in the Third World, see Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 8–72.
74 ‘Tirana Denounces U.S.-Soviet Intrigue,’ Black Panther, 12 October 1968, 8; ‘Washington/Moscow Collaboration Intensified,’ Black Panther, 3 March 1969, 8; ‘Soviet Revisionism Betrays,’ Black Panther, 23 March 1969, 11. On the Panthers’ relations with the Third World, see Michael Clemons and Charles Jones, ‘Global Solidarity: The Black Panther Party in the International Arena,’ New Political Science 21, no. 2 (1999): 177–203, and Benjamin Young, ‘Juche in the United States: The Black Panther Party’s Relations with North Korea, 1969–1971,’ The Asia-Pacific Journal 13, no. 12 (2015) http://japanfocus.org/-Benjamin-Young/ 4303/ article.html (Last accessed 30 August 2016).
75 ‘Come Home Angela,’ Black Panther, 2 September 1972, 3.
76 T. Kolesnichenko, ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Pravda, 10 December 1970, 4; ‘Prekratit’ proizvol,’ Izvestiia, 10 December 1970, 5; Chingiz Aitmatov, ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Izvestiia, 31 December 1970, 4; ‘V zashchitu Andzhelu Devis,’ Pravda, 6 January 1971, 5; ‘Spasti Andzhelu Devis!’ Izvestiia, 6 January 1971, 2; M. Sturua, ‘Andzhela Devis obviniaet,’ Izvestiia, 7 January 1971, 2; ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Izvestiia, 9 January 1971, 3; Filipp Bonoski, ‘Inkvizitory i Andzhela,’ Izvestiia, 21 January 1971, 4; A. Rusakov, ‘Khanoi: Vyrazhenie solidarnosti,’ Izvestiia, 14 January 1971, 2; ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Pravda, 28 January 1971, 1; ‘V zashchitu patriotki,’ Izvestiia, 5 February 1971, 2; T. Kolesnichenko, ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Pravda, 18 March 1971, 5; Iu. Rodionov, ‘Svobodu Andzhele!’ Izvestiia, 17 October 1971, 2; ‘Solidarnost’ s amerikanskoi patriotkoi,’ Izvestiia, 30 October 1971, 3.
77 ‘Zaiavlenie Andzhely Devis,’ Pravda, 11 November 1970, 5; ‘Kampaniia klevety,’ Izvestiia, 11 November 1970, 1. On Soviet authorities’ definition of patriot, see Abigail Judge Kret, ‘“We Unite with Knowledge”: The People’s Friendship University and Soviet Education for the Third World,’ Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 33, no. 2 (2013): 239–56, 253–4.
78 T. Kolesnichenko and V. Nekrasov, ‘Delo Andzhely Devis,’ Pravda, 1 November 1970, 5; T. Kolesnichenko, ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Pravda, 6 December 1970, 5; ‘Svobodu patriotam!’ Pravda, 19 December 1970, 4. For cartoons, see M. Skobelev, ‘Ruka pravosudiia,’ Krokodil, no. 5 (February 1972): 10; and Boris Efimov, ‘Delo, za kotorym oni ‘smotriat v oba,’ Krokodil, no. 10 (April 1972): 11.
79 I. Pomelov, ‘Questions of Theory: Soviet Socialist Patriotism,’ Pravda, 8 January 1971, 2 in CDSP XXIII, no. 1 (1971): 1–4; B. Strel’nikov, ‘V zashchitu Andzhely Devis’ and ‘Ostanovit’ raspravu!-trebuiut million,’ Pravda, 8 January 1971, 5.
80 ‘Prekratit’ sudebnuiu raspravu!’ Pravda, 9 December 1970, 6; B. Kondakov, ‘Golos sovetskikh liudei,’ Izvestiia, 10 December 1970, 5; ‘Spasti Andzhelu Devis!-trebuiut million,’ Pravda, 2 January 1971, 5; ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis! Gnevnyi golos sovetskikh liudei,’ Izvestiia, 10 January 1971, 2; ‘Pozdravliaem!’ Izvestiia, 26 January 1971, 2; ‘Adresovano Andzhele Devis,’ Pravda, 27 January 1971, 5; ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Pravda, 8 October 1971, 5; ‘Solidarny s Andzheloi,’ Pravda, 1 November 1971, 3.
81 ‘Solidarnost’ s Andzheloi Devis,’ Pravda, 30 October 1971, 5; Iu. Rodionov, ‘Blagodarnost’ Andzhely,’ Izvestiia, 2 November 1971, 3; I. Lebedev, ‘Neotsenimaia podderzhka,’ Pravda, 2 November 1972, 4.
82 ‘Reshitel’noe osuzhdenie,’ Pravda, 25 November 1970, 4; ‘Ostanovit’ palachei,’ Izvestiia, 11 December 1970, 7; E. Sheveleva, ‘Andzhela Devis,’ Izvestiia, 12 December 1970, 2; ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Izvestiia, 24 December 1970, 3; ‘Obrashchenie sovetskikh uchenykh,’ Izvestiia, 27 December 1970, 2; Viktor Urin, ‘Miss Otvaga,’ Pravda, 19 March 1971, 6; ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Izvestiia, 26 September 1971, 2.
83 On Davis as ‘Black celebrity’, see Kate Baldwin, Beyond the Colour Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters Between Black and Red, 1922–1963 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 255–7.
84 Yurchak, Everything Was Forever, 8–9; Anne E. Gorsuch, ‘“Cuba, My Love”: The Romance of Revolutionary Cuba in the Soviet Sixties,’ American Historical Review 120, no. 2 (2015): 497–526, 524; Robert Hornsby, Protest, Reform, and Repression in Khrushchev’s Soviet Union (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).
85 Maxim Matusevich, ‘Journeys of Hope: African Diaspora and the Soviet Society,’ African Diaspora I (2008): 53–85; Julie Hessler, ‘Death of an African Student in Moscow: Race, Politics, and the Cold War,’ Cahiers du Monde russe 47, nos. 1–2 (2006): 33–64.
86 Maria Hohn and Martin Klimke, A Breath of Freedom: Civil Rights, African-American GIs, and Germany (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 118–20; Alice Kaplan, Dreaming in French: The Paris Years of Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy, Susan Sontag, and Angela Davis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2013), 209–13.
87 Hornsby, ‘Post-Stalin Komsomol,’ 97 (quotation), 98–100.
88 ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Pravda, 3 January 1971, 1; ‘Solidarnost’ i podderzhka,’ Izvestiia, 27 January 1971, 1; Boris Orekhov, ‘Rozy dlia Andzhely,’ Pravda, 2 March 1971, 5; ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Izvestiia, 13 March 1971, 2; ‘Svobodu patriotke!’ Izvestiia, 24 March 1971, 2; ‘Edinstvennyi put’ k svobode,’ Literaturnaia gazeta, 1 March 1972, 9.
89 ‘Protiv politseiskogo proizvola,’ Pravda, 12 December 1969, 1; ‘Obshchestvennost’ vozmushchena,’ Pravda, 13 December 1969, 1; N. Kurdiumov, ‘Protest protiv repressii,’ Pravda, 8 March 1970, 5; ‘SShA: Sudiat bortsov pokryvaiut prestupnikov,’ Pravda, 16 July 1970, 8; ‘Chestnye liudi Ameriki,’ Izvestiia, 15 November 1970, 2; ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Izvestiia, 21 November 1970, 1; ‘Svobodu Andzhele Devis!’ Izvestiia, 10 December 1970, 5; O. Vasil’ev, ‘Ishchut lzhesvidetelei,’ Izvestiia, 12 January 1971, 1; ‘S dnem rozhdeniia, Andzhela!’ Pravda, 21 January 1971, 5; T. Kolesnichenko, ‘Za tvoi zavtrashnii den,’ Andzhela!’ Pravda, 26 January 1971, 4; ‘Presleduiut “Chernykh panter”,’ Izvestiia, 28 January 1971, 1; ‘Pozdravleniia patriotke,’ Pravda, 10 March 1971, 5; M. Sturua, ‘Zametaiut spedy,’ Izvestiia, 25 August 1971, 1;’Svobodu patriotke!’ Izvestiia, 1 September 1971, 1; B. Fetisov, ‘Gnevnyi protest,’ Izvestiia, 10 September 1971, 1.
90 Dina Fainberg, ‘The Heirs of the Future: Soviet and American Foreign Correspondents Meeting Youth on the Other Side of the Iron Curtain,’ in Winter Kept Us War: Cold War Interactions Reconsidered, ed. S. Autio-Sarasmo and B. Humphreys (Helsinki: Aleksanteri Institute, 2010), 126–36, 130–1.
91 A. Artamonov, ‘A. Devis na svobode,’ Izvestiia, 6 June 1972, 3; Vladimir Bol’shakov, ‘Sila solidarnosti,’ Pravda, 7 June 1972, 5; ‘Zdravstvui, Andzhela!’ Literaturanaia gazeta, 7 June 1972, 9.
92 V. Grigorovich, ‘Dobro pozhalovat,’ Andzhela!’ Pravda, 29 August 1972, 4; G. Vladimirov, ‘Solidarnost’-istochnik sily,’ Pravda, 30 August 1972, 4; N. Gladkov and V. Grigorovich, ‘Vstrechi na uzbekskoi zemle,’ Pravda, 4 September 1972, 3; N. Mar, ‘Andzhela Devis: “Ia chastliva!”’ Literaturnaia gazeta, 6 September 1972, 1; ‘Teplota, Serdechnost,’ Izvestiia, 9 September 1972, 3.
93 On the media’s marginalisation of Blacks’ perspectives and misrepresentation of the Panthers, see Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Washington, DC: US Printing Office, 1968), 203–13; Judson L. Jeffries and Ryan Nissim-Sabat, ‘Painting a More Complete Portrait of the Black Panther Party,’ in Comrades: A Local History of the Black Panther Party, ed. J. Jeffries (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 1–12; Jama Lazerow and Yohuru Williams, ‘Bringing the Black Panther Party Back In: A Survey,’ in Liberated Territory: Untold Local Perspectives on the Black Panther Party, ed. Y. Williams and J. Lazerow (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 33–48; and Edward Morgan, ‘Media Culture and the Public Memory of the Black Panther Party,’ in In Search of the Black Panther Party: New Perspectives on a Revolutionary Movement, ed. Y. Williams and J. Lazerow (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 324–73.
94 Vladimir Bukovsky, To Choose Freedom, trans. Denise Wood (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1987), 26, 33.
95 Maxim Matusevich, ‘Black in the USSR,’ Transition 100 (2008): 56–75, 74.
96 Zubok, Zhivago’s Children, 283.
97 Amalrik, Notes, 147–8, 279, 310–11.
98 Olga Ulianova, ‘Corvalan for Bukovsky: A Real Exchange of Prisoners during an Imaginary War. The Chilean Dictatorship, the Soviet Union, and U.S. Mediation, 1973–1976,’ Cold War History 14, no. 3 (2013): 315–36, 327.
99 See Nathans, ‘Talking Fish,’ 582. For the phraseology, see Foglesong, American Mission, 158.
100 For these categories in the US media, see Dina Fainberg and Artemy Kalinovsky, ‘Introduction,’ in Reconsidering Stagnation in the Brezhnev Era: Ideology and Exchange, ed. D. Fainberg and A. Kalinovsky (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016), vii–xxii, xix.
101 Kate Brown, ‘Out of Solitary Confinement: The History of the Soviet Gulag,’ Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 8, no. 1 (2007): 67–103, 68, 102, 103.
102 Shragin, Challenge, 10; Plyushch, History’s Carnival, 238; and Dina Kaminskaia, Final Judgment, trans. Michael Glenny (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982), 173–4; David Bonavia, Fat Sasha and the Urban Guerrilla: Protest and Conformism in the Soviet Union (New York: Atheneum, 1973), 127–9; Bukovsky, Choose Freedom, 93.
103 Bernard Gwertzman, ‘Soviet Court Acts on Appeal Today,’ New York Times, 30 December 1970, 1, 3; Document 22, ‘Andropov to Central Committee, 13 January 1971,’ in KGB File, 112–3. The KGB intercepted the US State Department’s telegram to Sakharov in which Martin Hillenbrand offered Sakharov a visa to attend the Davis trial (an offer extended to other Soviet academicians). US authorities privately hoped that they would not attend.
104 Charles Maynes, ‘Police Shootings: As US Grieves, Russian Media Gloats,’ VOA News, 12 July 2016 https://www.voanews.com/a/russia-us-shootings/3415248.html. (Last accessed 13 December 2017).
105 Yamiche Alcindor, ‘Black Lawmakers Hold a Particular Grievance with Facebook: Racial Exploitation,’ New York Times, 14 October 2017 https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/14/us/politics/black-lawmakers-russia-facebook-racial-division.html (Last accessed 13 December 2017).
106 The death sentences of the lead defendants, Eduard Kuznetsov and Mark Dymshits, were commuted. ‘Soviet Court Commutes Death Sentence of 2 Jews,’ New York Times, 31 December 1970, 1; ‘The Politics of Opinion,’ Time Magazine, 18 January 1971, 12.
107 Gorbanevskaya, Red Square at Noon, 7–12, 28, 33, 37, 116, 237–53, 265, 283–5; Rubenstein and Gribanov, KGB File, 35–36, 141; Zubok, Zhivago’s Children, 269, 292. Activists were not immune to articulating chauvinism; Nathans, ‘Talking Fish,’ 582; and Plyushch, History’s Carnival, 170, 189–90, 242.
108 Maxim Matusevich, ‘Expanding the Boundaries of the Black Atlantic: African Students as Soviet Moderns,’ Ab Imperio 2 (2012): 325–50; Hessler, ‘Death of an African Student,’ 48–50.