Socialist exhibits and Sino-Soviet relations, 1950–60

ABSTRACT

Socialist bloc exhibits in China in the 1950s communicated ideas about the future prosperity and development to be brought to China in the wake of its alliance with the socialist world, the role of socialism in preserving and maintaining folk and traditional culture, and the role of the bloc in extending the virtues of European high culture to the East. The Soviets proudly displayed Russia’s historic contribution to high culture as well as information about contemporary events at the Bol’shoi Theater and other cultural institutions in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and the East Germans and the Czechoslovaks similarly emphasized the prestige and quality of their past artists and composers as well as their contemporary symphonies and orchestras. The Chinese, however, were increasingly disappointed both with socialist bloc approaches to Chinese development as well as with depictions of Chinese culture that reminded them of the heritage of European imperialism. They complained in the exhibit “comment books” about methods, practices and technology that offered little to unique Chinese “conditions” and “peculiarities.” They were frustrated by the inefficiencies of Soviet-style socialism, and they even complained about the food at the Moscow Restaurant. By the end of the decade, the exhibits served as yet another example of the miscommunication, frustration and dispute over models of development that contributed to the Sino-Soviet split.

KEYWORDS:

• Sino-Soviet relations
• socialist bloc exchange
• Eastern Europe
• exhibits
• Soviet foreign policy
• Chinese foreign policy

Notes

¹ For commentary on previous drafts of this article, my thanks to Jan Zofka, Sören Urbansky, Beáta Hock, the Associates Writing Group of the Department of History at Old Dominion University, the participants at the conference on ‘Beyond the Kremlin's Reach? Transfers and Entanglements between Eastern Europe and China during the Cold War Era’, in Leipzig, Germany, 29 June-2 July 2015, and several anonymous reviewers engaged by Cold War History.

² See Robert H. Haddow, Pavilions of Plenty: Exhibiting American Culture Abroad in the 1950s (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997); Jane De Hart Mathews, ‘Art and Politics in Cold War America,’ American Historical Review 81, no. 4 (October 1976): 762–87; Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997); Marilyn S. Kushner, ‘Exhibiting Art at the American National Exhibition in Moscow, 1959,’ Journal of Cold War Studies 4, no. 1 (2002): 6–26; Karal Ann Marling, As Seen on TV: The Visual Culture of Everyday Life in the 1950s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).

³ Tomas Tolvaisas, ‘Cold War “Bridge Building”: U.S. Exchange Exhibits and Their Reception in the Soviet Union, 1959–1967,’ Journal of Cold War Studies 12, no. 4 (2010): 3–31; Susan E. Reid, ‘Who Will Beat Whom? Soviet Popular Reception of the American National Exhibition in Moscow, 1959,’ Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 9, no. 4 (2008): 855–904; Susan E. Reid, ‘Cold War in the Kitchen: Gender and the De-Stalinization of Consumer Taste in the Soviet Union under Khrushchev,’ Slavic Review 61, no. 2 (2002): 211–52; Greg Castillo, Cold War on the Home Front: The Soft Power of Midcentury Design (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010). For Soviet treatments of exhibits, see Boris Brodskii, Ves’ mir na iugo-zapade (Moscow: ‘Znanie’, 1961); K. A. Pavlov, ‘Sovetskie universal’nye i spetsializirovannye vystavki za granitsei v period s 1946 po 1957 g.,’ 61–84, and A. V. Saag, ‘Inostrannye vystavki v SSSR,’ 85–108; in M. V. Nesterov, eds., Uchastie sovetskogo soiuza v mezhdunarodnykh iarmarkakh i vystavkakh (Moscow, 1957); P. A. Cherviakov, Vsemirnaia vystavka 1958 goda v Briussele (Moscow: ‘Znanie,’ 1958); I. G. Bol’shakov, Na vsekh kontinentakh mira (Moscow, 1963); I. G. Bol’shakov, Pered litsom vsego mira (Moscow, 1960). On Soviet contributions to major exhibits in the 1930s, see 1937, ‘Predlozheniia,’ f. 5673, op. 1, d. 8; Anthony Swift, ‘The Soviet World of Tomorrow at the New York World’s Fair, 1939,’ The Russian Review 57 (1998): 364–79, Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv rossiiskoi federatsii (State Archive of the Russian Federation) (GARF), Moscow.

⁴ 1959, A. Shel’nov, et al., 306, op. 1, d. 389, l. 1-3, Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv ekonomiki (Russian State Archive of the Economy) (RGAE), Moscow; Stuart W. Little, ‘Festival of Soviet Music and Dance Here in July,’ New York Herald Tribune (1 May 1959), Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow, 1957-1959, 306/88/12/Box 3, Folders: Cultural, National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group (NARA RG), College Park, Maryland; David Caute, The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Hegemony During the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 481–2.

⁵ 29 July 1959, ‘Priem,’ G. Pushkin, f. 0100, op. 46, p. 187, d. 6, l. 4, Arkhiv vneshnei politiki rossiiskoi federadtsii (Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation) (AVPRF), Moscow.

⁶ 24 October 1959, ‘Woguo shinian lai jianshe chengjiu ji tupian zai mosike zhanchu de qingkuang,’ 109-01919-05, 83, Waijiaobu danganguan (Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archive) (WJBDAG), Beijing.

⁷ 30 July 1959, ‘Baogao meiguo zai mo juben zhanlanhui qingkuang,’ 109-00876-03, 7, WJBDAG.

⁸ Lorenz Lüthi, The Sino-Soviet Split, 1956–1966 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008); Sergei Radchenko, Two Suns in the Heavens: The Sino-Soviet Struggle for Supremacy, 1962–1967 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009); Odd Arne Westad, ed., Brothers in Arms: The Rise and Fall of the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1945–1963 (Washington, DC and Stanford: Woodrow Wilson Centre Press and Stanford University Press, 1998); Chen Jian, Mao’s China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).

⁹ On the global Sino-Soviet rivalry, see Jeremy Friedman, Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).

¹⁰ For studies of Sino-Soviet cultural exchange, see Nicolai Volland, ‘Translating the Soviet State: Cultural Exchange, National Identity, and the Socialist World in the Early PRC,’ Twentieth-Century China 33, no. 2 (2007): 51–72; Nicolai Volland, ‘Soviet Spaceships in Socialist China: Reading Soviet Popular Literature in The 1950s,’ Modern China Studies 22, no. 1 (2015): 191–214; Tina Mai Chen, ‘Internationalism and Cultural Experience: Soviet Films and Popular Chinese Understandings of the Future in the 1950s,’ Cultural Critique 58 (2004): 82–114. For an innovative approach to Russian-Chinese relations before 1949, see Elizabeth McGuire, Red at Heart: How Chinese Communists Fell in Love with the Russian Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017). On socialist bloc advisers and the Sino-Soviet relationship, see Shen Zhihua, Sulian zhuanjia zai zhongguo (1948–1960) (Beijing: Zhongguo guoji guangbo chubanshe, 2003); Austin Jersild, The Sino-Soviet Alliance: An International History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014). On Soviet advisers in India, see David C. Engerman, ‘Learning from the East: Soviet Experts and India in the Era of Competitive Coexistence,’ Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 33, no. 2 (2013): 227–38. On GDR advisers in the Global South, see Ulrich van der Heyden, ‘FDJ-Brigaden der Freundschaft aus der DDR—die Peace Corps des Ostens?’ and Berthold Unfried, ‘Instrumente und Praktiken von “Solidarität” Ost und “Entwicklungshilfe” West: Blickpunkt auf das entsandte Personal,’ in Berthold Unfried and Eva Himmelstoss, eds., Die eine Welt schaffen: Praktiken von Internationalen Solidarität und Internationalen Entwicklung (Vienna: Akademische Verlagsanstalt, 2012), 99–122, 73–98; Berthold Unfried, ‘Friendship and Education, Coffee and Weapons: Exchanges between Socialist Ethiopia and the German Democratic Republic,’ Northeast African Studies 16, no. 1 (2016); Young-Sun Hong, ‘Through a Glass Darkly: East German Assistance to North Korea and Alternative Narratives of the Cold War,’ in Quinn Slobodian, ed., Comrades of Colour: East Germany in the Cold War World (New York: Berghahn, 2015), 43–72.

¹¹ 14 August 1959, Report on Training Programme for Guides, Paul R. Conroy, 306, 1957-59, 306/88/12/Box 7, Folder: Reports, NARA RG: Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow.

¹² 1948, ‘List;’ 1951, ‘List,’ f. 8123, op. 3, d. 1110, 1. 5, RGAE.

¹³ 28 April 1950, P. Stepanov, f. 8123, op. 3, d. 1110, l. 56, RGAE.

¹⁴ 16 October 1951, P. Bulgakov, f. 8123, op. 3 d. 1124, l. 14, RGAE.

¹⁵ Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 430. On the ‘developmental hierarchies’ of the socialist world, see Gÿorgy Péteri, ‘The Oblique Coordinate Systems of Modern Identity,’ in Gÿorgy Péteri, ed., Imagining the West in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2010), 1–12.

¹⁶ Vadim Vokov, ‘The Concept of kul’turnost’: Notes on the Stalinist Civilising Process,’ in Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Stalinism: New Directions (New York: Routledge, 2000), 210–30; Catriona Kelly, Refining Russia: Advice Literature, Polite Culture, and Gender from Catherine to Yeltsin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 230–393. For a Soviet explanation, see T. Kudrina, ‘K voprosu o kul’turno-vospitatel’noi funktsii sovetskogo gosudarstva v usloviiakh razvitogo sotsializma,’ in T. A. Kudrina, ed., Aktual’nye voprosy kul’turnogo stroitel’stva v period razvitogo sotsializma (Moscow: Ministerstvo kul'tury RSFSR, 1977), 6–22.

¹⁷ 10 December 1959, ‘Zpráva o zájezdu české filharmonie,’ 073159, 1955-1959, ČLR, krabice 2, obal 4; ‘Dogovor druzhby i bratstva,’ Novoe vremia 7 (12 February 1960), Archiv Ministerstva zahraničních vící České republiky (Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) (MZVTO-T) .

¹⁸ ‘Ist die Sowjetunion eine Kolonialmacht? Die Entwicklung der zentralasiatischen Sowjetrepubliken auf dem Gebiete des Gesundheits—und Bildungswesens,’ Deutsche Aussenpolitik, 4 (April 1958), 416–22.

¹⁹ Lewis H. Siegelbaum, ‘Introduction,’ in Siegelbaum, ed., The Socialist Car: Automobility in the Eastern Bloc (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011), 3; Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 79–83.

²⁰ A. Vinogradov, V strane velikoi iantszy: Ocherki (Kurgan: Izdatel’stvo gazety ‘Sovetskoe zaural’e,’ 1959), 7.

²¹ Joachim Krüger, ‘Das China-Bild in der DDR der 50er Jahre,’ Bochumer Jahrbuch zür Ostasienforschung 25 (2001), 266; 18 November 1961, ‘Informatsiia,’ F. Konstantinov, f. 9518, op. 1, d. 133, l. 218-19, GARF; Karl Heinz Hagen, ‘Die Kulturellen Beziehungen der DDR zu den Ländern des sozialistischen Lagers,’ Deutsche Aussenpolitik 11 (1957), 955; Aleksandr N. Tikhomirov, Iskusstvo sotisalisticheskikh stran (Moscow: ‘Znanie’, 1959); S.V. Gerasimov, ‘Iskusstvo stran sotsializma,’ Tvorchestvo 12 (1958): 1–2; 1953, ‘Al’bom vystavki,’ f. 635, op. 1, d. 272, l. 17-27, RGAE; 13 August 1957, Ge Baoquan to N.G. Erofeev, f. 5283, op. 18, d. 207, l. 36, GARF.

²² V. V. Bogatkin, et al., Sto dnei v Kitae (dekabr’ 1956-fevral’ 1957): Katalog (Moscow: Soiuz khudozhnikov SSSR, 1957), 9–10, 17–26.

²³ The rescue of a once glorious antiquity from more recent forms of cultural decline is a trope long explored by scholars of ‘Orientalism’. See Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978), 92; John M. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), 58–67.

²⁴ 17 December 1959, ‘O účasti čínských umělců a vědců na oslavách 10. Výročí ČLR,’ Jaromír Štětina, 033.857/59, 1955-1959, ČLR, krabice 8, obal 1, MZVTO-T; 25 September 1959, ‘Záznam pro I náměstka s. Dr. Gregora,’ 028.351/59, 1955-1959, ČLR, krabice 1, obal 1, MZVTO-T.

²⁵ 31 December 1954, ‘Perepiska s deiateliami kul’tury i iskusstva Kitaia,’ B. Belyi, f. 2077, op. 1, d. 1121, l. 13, Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv literatury i iskusstvo (Russian State Archive of Literature and Culture) (RGALI); 6 December 1957, ‘Zasedaniia biuro inostrannoi komissii soiuza kompozitorov SSSR,’ f. 2077, op. 1, d. 1432, l. 3 RGALI.

²⁶ Jan Palmowski, Inventing a Socialist Nation: Heimat and the Politics of Everyday Life in the GDR 1945–1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 60.

²⁷ 28 August 1954, ‘Kratkaia kharakteristika sovetskoi vystavki v Pekine,’ I. Bol’shakov, r. 5113, f. 5, op. 28, d. 187, l. 174, Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv noveishii istorii (Russian State Archive of Contemporary History) (RGANI).

²⁸ 1955, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 129-30, 142, 158, RGAE.

²⁹ 1955, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 152, RGAE.

³⁰ 27 August 1954, Chairman Mao to CC, f. 5, op. 30, d. 76, l. 32, RGANI.

³¹ Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 170.

³² Yan Li, ‘Building Friendship: Soviet Influence, Socialist Modernity, and Chinese Cityscape in the 1950s,’ Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies 2, no. 3 (2014): 48–66.

³³ 1955, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 121-3, 158, RGAE.

³⁴ July 1954, I. Bol’shakov, f. 5, op. 28, d. 186, l. 174, RGANI.

³⁵ September 1955, ‘Otchet,’ G. Virob’ian, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 1, RGAE.

³⁶ 1955, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 153, RGAE.

³⁷ 4 January 1956, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 300, l. 99-105, RGAE; 9 March 1955, 21–22 March 1955, 25 March 1955, ‘Perevod otzyvov,’ f. 635, op. 2, d. 283, l. 9, 139, 135, RGAE.

³⁸ 4 January 1956, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 300, l. 103, RGAE.

³⁹ 16 July 1956, ‘Muqian sulian baozhi xuanchuan zhongde yizhong zhongyao renwu,’ 109-01617-16, 119, WJBDAG; 8 December 1956, ‘Dui bolan shijian de chubu guji,’ 109-00762-01, 6, WJBDAG; Shen Zhihua, Sulian zhuanjia zai zhongguo (1948–1960), 253–60, 291, 340, 367; Jersild, The Sino-Soviet Alliance, 109–31.

⁴⁰ 26 August 1954, P. Kriukov, f. 5, op. 30, d. 72, l. 80, RGANI.

⁴¹ 7 September 1954, ‘Tematicheskii plan,’ I. Shiriaev, f. 5, r. 5113, op. 28, d. 187, l. 195, RGANI.

⁴² 1955, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 140-, RGAE.

⁴³ 1954, ‘Otchet,’ f. 635, op. 1, d. 278, l. 98-103, RGAE.

⁴⁴ 1955, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 145, RGAE.

⁴⁵ 1955, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 148, RGAE.

⁴⁶ 3 March 1954, N. Chesnokov, f. 5, op. 30, d. 72, ll. 69-72, RGANI.

⁴⁷ 7 September 1954, ‘Tematicheskii plan,’ I. Shiriaev, f. 5, r. 5113, op. 28, d. 187, l. 191, RGANI.

⁴⁸ Rachel Applebaum, ‘The Friendship Project: Socialist Internationalism in the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia in the 1950s and 1960s,’ Slavic Review 74, no. 3 (2015): 500–6; Jiří Pernes, Krize komunistického režimu v Československu v 50. Letech 20. století (Brno: Centrum pro stadium demokracie a kultury, 2008), 36–44; Giustino, ‘Industrial Design and the Czechoslovak Pavilion at EXPO ’58,’ 200.

⁴⁹ 7 March 1955, J. Veselý, 11.43.5/55; 21 February 1955, Ludmila Jankovcová, 11.43.7/55; 13 June 1955, Ludmila Jankovcová, 11.43.8/55; 7 May 1955, Ludmila Jankovcová, 11.43.15/55, krabice 2373, folder 12/1.37.3/59 (Svetová výstava v Bruselu), Národní archiv (National Archive) (NA) Uřad předsednictva vlády (Office of the Chairman of the Government)

⁵⁰ On Soviet and East European exhibits at Brussels, see Lewis Siegelbaum, ‘Sputnik Goes to Brussels: The Exhibition of a Soviet Technological Wonder,’ Journal of Contemporary History, 47, no. 1 (2012): 120–36; György Péteri, ‘Transsystemic Fantasies: Counterrevolutionary Hungary at Brussels Expo ’58,’ Journal of Contemporary History 47, no. 1 (2012): 137–60; Cathleen M. Giustino, ‘Industrial Design and the Czechoslovak Pavilion at EXPO ’58: Artistic Autonomy, Party Control and Cold War Common Ground,’ Journal of Contemporary History 47, no. 1 (2012): 185–212. For a series of primary source collections on the Czechoslovak exhibit in Brussels prepared by the National Archive in Prague, see Expo ’58: Československá restaurace: Příběh československé účasti na Světové výstavě v Bruselu (Prague: Národní archiv, 2008); Expo 58: Zápisy z porad: Příběh československé účasti na Světové výstavě v Bruselu (Prague: Národní archiv, 2008); Expo 58: Scénář: Příběh československé účasti na Světové výstavě v Bruselu (Prague: Národní archiv, 2008); Expo ’58: Přísně tajné: Příběh československé účasti na Světové výstavě v Bruselu (Prague: Národní archiv, 2008).

⁵¹ ‘Informační zpráva,’ Köhler and Hendrych, Expo 58: Scénář, 9–11.

⁵² Dali L. Yang, ‘Surviving the Great Leap Famine: The Struggle over Rural Policy, 1958–1962,’ in Timothy Cheek and Tony Saich, eds., New Perspectives on State Socialism in China (Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), 262–302; Zhihua Shen and Yafeng Xia, ‘The Great Leap Forward, the People's Commune and the Sino-Soviet Split,’ Journal of Contemporary China, 20 (72) (2011), 861–82; Li Jie, Mao Zedong yu xin zhongguo de neizheng waijiao (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 2003), 100–5, 148; Frank Dikötter, Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–1962 (New York: Walker, 2010), 13–57.

⁵³ 1954, ‘Otchet,’ 635, op. 1, d. 278, l. 111, RGAE; 3 September 1955, ‘O nekotorykh nedostatkakh v organizatsii kul’turnykh i nauchnykh sviazei,’ S. Rumiantsev, f. 5, r. 5136, op. 28, d. 286, l. 183-184, RGANI.

⁵⁴ 9 October 1955, ‘Otzyvy posetitelei,’ f. 635, op. 2, d. 247, l. 32, 23, RGAE.

⁵⁵ 3 March 1954, ‘Zapis’ besedy,’ P.F. Iudin and Peng Zhen, f. 0100, op. 47, p. 379, d. 7, l. 48, AVPRF. For other Chinese complaints, see 9 October 1955, ‘Otzyvy posetitelei,’ f. 635, op. 2, d. 247, l. 32, 23, RGAE.

⁵⁶ 3 September 1955, ‘O nekotorykh nedostatkakh v organizatsii kul’turnykh i nauchnykh sviazei,’ S. Rumiantsev, f. 5, r. 5136, op. 28, d. 286, l. 183, RGANI.

⁵⁷ 1954, ‘Otchet,’ f. 635, op. 1, d. 278, l. 104, RGAE.

⁵⁸ 9 October 1955, ‘Otzyvy posetitelei,’ f. 635, op. 2, d. 247, l. 71, 74, 101, 112, 130, RGAE.

⁵⁹ 9 October 1955, ‘Otzyvy posetitelei,’ f. 635, op. 2, d. 247, l. 32, RGAE.

⁶⁰ Li Yueran, Zhongsu waijiao qinliji: Shouxi eyu fanyi de lishi jianzheng (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2001), 51.

⁶¹ ‘Gongren jieji shehuizhuyi jiaoyu xuezhe cunke,’ Gongren ribao (29 January 1958), 3; Quanmin de jieri quanmin de shengli,’ Xinmin ribao (1 October 1958), 3; 6 November 1959, ‘Sulian tongzhi tan woguo dianying yishu de fazhan,’ 2 April 1959, ‘Wo guo dianying zai sulian shangying de qingkuang,’ 109-01919-05, 74-76, 67-69, WJBDAG; 3 July 1958, ‘Připomínky činské strany, k cs. Filmu 'Bratr ocean,'’ 018.219/58, MZV, Teritoriální odbory - Tajné 1955-1959,’ ČLR, krabice 2, obal 5. On Chinese film in the 1950s, see Tina Mai Chen, ‘Internationalism and Cultural Experience;’ Paul G. Pickowicz, ‘Acting Like Revolutionaries: Shi Hui, the Wenhua Studio, and Private-Sector Filmmaking, 1949–52,’ in Jeremy Brown and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds., Dilemmas of Victory: The Early Years of the People's Republic of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 256–87.

⁶² 14 December 1959, ‘O návštěvě ústřední konservatoře hudby v Pekingu,’ Jaromír Štětina, 033.355/59, 1955-1959, ČLR, krabice 8, obal 1, MZVTO-T.

⁶³ 1956, ‘Iskusstvo Anglii,’ f. 652, op. 10, d. 81, l. 32, RGALI.

⁶⁴ 20 June 1957, Iouko Tolonen to Ministry of Culture; June 1957, Minoru Ochi to Mikhail Chulaki; 29 July 1957, S. Oreshnikov to V. T. Stepanov, f. 648, op. 7, d. 258, l. 26, 19, 50, RGALI.

⁶⁵ 23 December 1961, M. Zimianin, f. 9518, op. 1, d. 145, l. 11-12, GARF; 30 September 1961, Aristov to E. A. Furtseva, f. 9518, op. 1, d. 133, l. 179, GARF. On transnational connections within the socialist world, see Patryk Babiracki and Kenyon Zimmer, eds., Cold War Crossings: International Travel and Exchange across the Soviet Bloc, 1940s–1960s (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2014); Patryk Babiracki and Austin Jersild, eds., Socialist Internationalism in the Cold War: Exploring the Second World (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).

⁶⁶ 27 March 1962, M. Zimianin to G. A. Zhukov, f. 9518, op. 1, d. 145, l. 65, GARF.

⁶⁷ 4 November 1954, ‘Otzyvy posetitelei,’ f. 635, op. 2, d. 217, l. 155, RGAE.

⁶⁸ 23 December 1961, ‘Materialy o kul'turnykh sviaziakh OSKD s OKSD,’ S. Chervonenko, f. 9576, op. 18, d. 113, l. 212-13, GARF.

⁶⁹ 30 January 1960, ‘Zapis' besedy,’ S. V. Chervonenko, Chen Yi, and Li Fuchun; and 18 January 1960, ‘Zapis' besedy,’ S. V. Chervonenko and Liu Shaoqi, f. 0100, op. 53, p. 454, d. 8, l. 31, 1, AVPRF.

⁷⁰ Quan Yanchi, Mao Zedong yu Heluxiaofu (Huhe: Nei menggu renmin chubanshe, 1998), 89–92.

⁷¹ Yan Li, ‘Building Friendship,’ 63.

⁷² 1955, ‘Otchet,’ K. Smol’ianov, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 158, RGAE.

⁷³ 8 August 1955, ‘Otchet,’ S. Tochilin, f. 635, op. 1, d. 299, l. 83, RGAE.

⁷⁴ 30 December 1959, ‘Puxijin tan suguo neiwai xingshi,’ 109-02064-01, 2, WJBDAG.

⁷⁵ 8 December 1959, ‘Bo bao pingjia aisenhaoweier chuguo fangwen,’ 109-01393-03, 55, WJBDAG.