‘How to raise a curtain’: security, surveillance, and mobility in Canada’s Cold War-era exchanges, 1955–65

ABSTRACT

An extensive literature on the cultural Cold War has shown that winning the hearts and minds of rival populations distinguished the conflict as an ideological contest. Yet the question of how ideology influenced the tracking of cross-bloc travellers in cultural and scientific exchanges remains largely unexplored. This article examines Canada’s ideological approach to screening and monitoring visitors from communist countries along with its covert interest in collecting foreign intelligence from visits to the Eastern bloc. By analysing declassified documents from Canada’s security service, this article argues that transnational surveillance allowed the Canadian government to imprint its own vision of Cold War mobility.

KEYWORDS:

• Surveillance
• Cold War exchanges
• Canada
• foreign intelligence
• public diplomacy
• mobility
• cultural history

Notes

¹ Research for this article began under a Research Assistantship with Graham Carr. I thank him for his guidance and support along the way. In addition, I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful feedback as well as Elena Razlogova, Matthew Penney, Fred Burrill, and Eric Fillion for their insightful comments on earlier drafts. A version of this paper was also presented at the Canadian Historical Association’s annual meeting in 2019.

² In 1956 the Special Branch was renamed the Directorate of Security and Intelligence. For the sake of consistency, this article will use ‘security service’ to refer to the RCMP’s counterintelligence and countersubversion branches.

³ Memo from Chief Superintendent W.H. Kelly to Deputy Minister Harry Cunliffe (secret), 15 April 1965, 000146–000158, RG 25, Library Archives Canada (hereafter LAC), Ottawa, ON. Many of the following documents can be found in the Department of External Affairs and the Department of Defence fonds and the Department of Citizenship and Immigration and were obtained from successful Access to Information and Privacy (ATIP) requests. These ATIP requests can be viewed on the Canadian government’s online portal: https://open.canada.ca/en/search/ati.

⁴ See the 1 March 1943 RCMP report compiled by editors Gregory S. Kealey and Reg Whitaker in RCMP Security Bulletins: The War Series, Part II, 1942–45 (St John’s: Canadian Committee on Labour History, 1993), 56.

⁵ W.H. Kelly to Harry Cunliffe, 15 April 1965, RG 25, LAC.

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ See Gregory S. Kealey, Andrew Parnaby, and Reg Whitaker’s overview of Canadian political policing, Secret Service: Political Policing in Canada from the Fenians to Fortress America (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012); Reg Whitaker and Steve Hewitt, Canada and the Cold War (Toronto: Lorimer, 2003); Dieter K. Buse, Gary Kinsman, and Mercedes Steedman, Whose National Security?: Canadian State Surveillance and the Creation of Enemies (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2000); Steve Hewitt, Spying 101: The RCMP’s Secret Activities at Canadian Universities, 1917–1997 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002); and Gregory S. Kealey, Spying on Canadians: The Royal Mountain Police Security Service and the Origins of the Long Cold War (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017).

⁸ By transnational surveillance I mean forms of information culled from surveilling transnational actors in domestic contexts or from the sharing of information between foreign intelligence networks monitoring cross-bloc travellers.

⁹ The literature on the cultural Cold War is extensive. See Scott Lucas, Freedom’s War: The American Crusade against the Soviet Union (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 93–106; Stoner Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London: Granta Books, 1999); Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Walter Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (Palgrave Macmillan, 1997); Yale Richmond, Cultural Exchanges and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003); David Caute, The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). For jazz diplomacy, see Penny M. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: University of Harvard Press, 2004); and Lisa Davenport, Jazz Diplomacy: Promoting America during the Cold War Era (Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2009).

¹⁰ Lucas, Freedom’s War, 3.

¹¹ For more on Third World cultural diplomacy, see Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge University Press, 2005); David C. Engerman, The Price of Aid: The Economic Cold War in India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018); and David C. Engerman, ‘The Second World’s Third World,’ Kritika 12, no. 1 (2011): 183–211. For a summary of recent Cold War scholarship, see Federico Romero, ‘Cold War Historiography at the Crossroads,’ Journal of Cold War History 14, no. 4 (2014): 685–703.

¹² Jennifer Anderson, Propaganda and Persuasion: The Cold War and the Canadian-Soviet Friendship Society (University of Manitoba Press, 2017), 146.

¹³ Graham Carr, ‘‘No Political Significance of Any Kind’: Glenn Gould’s Tour of the Soviet Union and the Culture of the Cold War,’ Canadian Historical Review 95, no. 1 (2014): 1–29.

¹⁴ For more on Cold War era science exchanges, see Clapperton Chakanetsa Mavhunga, ‘A Plundering Tiger with its Deadly Cubs? The USSR and China as Weapons in the Engineering of a ‘Zimbabwean Nation,’ 1945–2009,’ in Entangled Geographies: Empire and Technopolitics in the Global Cold War, ed. Gabrielle Hecht (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 231–66.

¹⁵ Kealey, Parnaby, and Whitaker, Secret Service, 27.

¹⁶ This phrase was often invoked by the RCMP. See C.W. Harvison, ‘Memorandum for JIC,’ (secret), 24 February 1956, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC [ATIP request: #A-2016-00-297].

¹⁷ Walter O’Hearn, ‘How to Raise a Curtain,’ Montreal Gazette, 8 May 1958.

¹⁸ This phrase was used in the Third Meeting of the Interdepartmental Panel on the Exchange of Visits with the Soviet Bloc (Visits Panel), 22 May 1957, RG 25, LAC.

¹⁹ After Yugoslavia and China began proposing exchanges in the late 1950s the Visits Panel was renamed the Interdepartmental Panel on Exchange of Visits with the Communist Bloc.

²⁰ Harry Cunliffe to Paul Kellner of the Immigration Branch, 20 April 1965, ‘Soviet Groups Visiting Canada, Reports on Activities,’ file SF-S-105, vol. 960, RG 76, LAC, [#A-2016-00-355].

²¹ For an overview of post-war intelligence-gathering, see Martin Rudner, ‘The Historical Evolution of Canada’s Foreign Intelligence Capability: Cold War SIGINT Strategy and Its Legacies,’ Journal of Intelligence History 6, no. 1 (2006): 63–81.

²² See Michel Foucault, Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the College de France, 1977–78, ed. Michel Senellart (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007); see John Torpey, ‘Coming and Going: On the State Monopolization of the Legitimate Means of Movement,’ in The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship and the State (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 4–20.

²³ Torpey, The Invention of the Passport, 13.

²⁴ Mahmoud Keshavarz, The Design Politics of the Passport: Materiality, Mobility, and Dissent (London and New York: Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2019), 10.

²⁵ I use the term ‘public diplomacy’ to capture a broad range of state-sponsored activities, including both cultural and scientific exchanges. For more on the evolution of the term, see Nicholas J. Cull, ‘Public Diplomacy: Taxonomies and Histories,’ The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616, no. 1 (2008): 31–54.

²⁶ The Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs to the Canadian Ambassador in Moscow, 29 March 1956, 2727-V-40, RG 25, LAC.

²⁷ Christabelle Sethna and Steve Hewitt, Just Watch Us: RCMP Surveillance of the Women’s Liberation Movement in Cold War Canada (Toronto: McGill-Queens University Press, 2011), ‘Introduction,’ 3–17.

²⁸ See Gary Kinsman and Patrizia Gentile, The Canadian War on Queers: National Security as Sexual Regulation (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2010).

²⁹ See Reg Whitaker and Gary Marcuse, Cold War Canada: The Making of a National Insecurity State, 1945–1957 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996).

³⁰ Dennis Molinaro, ‘‘In the Field of Espionage, There Is No Such Thing as Peacetime’: The Official Secrets Act and the PICNIC Wiretapping Program,’ Canadian Historical Review 98, no. 3 (2017): 457–82.

³¹ Carr, ‘No Political Significance of Any Kind,’ 9.

³² ‘Notes on the Soviet Relations Committee of the British Council,’ November 1955, S-1150-110/J37, vol. 1, R 112, LAC, [#A-2013-00-309].

³³ ‘Record of Cabinet Decision – Exchange of Visits and Information between Canada and the Soviet Union,’ 23 February 1956, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R 112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

³⁴ W.H. Kelly to RCMP HQ, ‘Security Screening – Non-Immigrant Visas,’ 2 July 1954, C-311-42-2-3, RG 25, LAC.

³⁵ ‘Record of Cabinet Decision,’ Privy Council Office, 5 October 1955, C-311-42-2-3-32, RG 25, LAC.

³⁶ The Visits Panel’s secretary operated on a rotating basis. Permanent members included the Department of Citizenship and Immigration’s Deputy Minister, the Secretary to the Cabinet, and the RCMP Commissioner. The Chairman of the JIC attended most meetings. Each department appointed its own ‘Visits Officer’ who was responsible for reviewing visit proposals.

³⁷ Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer, 6.

³⁸ In May 1962, External Affairs requested additional security for the Ukrainian Dance Ensemble’s Canadian tour. N.A. Robertson to the Deputy Minister of Justice, 3 May 1962, pt. 5, 10438-V-6-40, 5375, RG 25, LAC.

³⁹ This same proposal was originally turned down by the US State Department on similar grounds. Secretary of the Visits Panel Andre Couvrette, ‘Memorandum for Visits Panel,’ 1 February 1963, S-1950-4-146/37-1, vol. 6, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁴⁰ C.J. Webster, Secretary of the Interdepartmental Panel on the Exchange of Visits with Communist Countries, 31 July 1958, S-1150-110/J37, vol.1, R 112, LAC, [#A-2013-00-309].

⁴¹ The Visits Panel had a ‘Control Code’ to keep track of visitors. The RCMP recorded a ‘1’ next to a non-immigrant visa holder’s name for ‘Whereabouts Unknown’; ‘2’ for ‘Departure Verified’; and ‘6’ for ‘Reported Departed.’ See Department of Immigration and Citizenship, ‘Soviet Groups Visiting Canada, Reports on Activities,’ file SF-S-105, vol. 960, RG 76, LAC, [#A-2016-00-355].

⁴² ‘Re: Red Army Chorus’, USSEA to the Director of Immigration of Citizenship, 30 April 1962, RG 25, LAC.

⁴³ ‘Ottawa Bans Visit Visa to Red Groups,’ Montreal Gazette, 19 June 1956.

⁴⁴ Jules Leger to Information Division, 2727-V-40, RG 25, LAC.

⁴⁵ Mark Kristmanson, Plateaus of Freedom: Nationality, Culture, and State Security in Canada 1940–1960 (Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press, 2003), 207.

⁴⁶ ‘Canadian Iron Curtain’ appears frequently in the Visits Panel’s correspondence.

⁴⁷ Joint Intelligence Committee Memorandum to the Security Sub-Panel (Secret), ‘Intelligence Implications of Exchange of Visits between Canada and the Soviet Bloc (Including Communist China),’ 3 August 1955, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁴⁸ D.F. Wall to the Privy Council Office, ‘Memorandum to the Security Sub-Panel,’ 28 September 1955, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁴⁹ Memorandum for the Security Sub-Panel (Secret), ‘Intelligence Implications of Exchange of Visits between Canada and the Soviet Bloc (Including Communist China),’ 3 August 1955, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁵⁰ C.W. Harvison, ‘Memorandum for JIC,’ (secret), 24 February 1956, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁵¹ ‘Briefing Material for the Delegation to the USSR of the Canadian Lumbermen’s Association – Submitted by the Directorate of Military Intelligence,’ (Secret), 29 June 1956, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁵² C.W. Harvison to J.C. McGibbon, Secretary of the JIC (Secret), 19 June 1956, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁵³ G.H. Southam to Secretary of the JIC, 23 July 1956, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁵⁴ A. Malysheff, ‘Memorandum for the JIC,’ 9 January 1963, vol. 6, S-1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁵⁵ R.E. Branscombe, Secretary of the Visits Panel, ‘Memorandum for the JIC,’ 8 February 1960, vol. 4, S-1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁵⁶ A similar programme involving debriefing Canadian travellers predated the Visits Panel. See Kurt F. Jensen, ‘Canada’s Foreign Intelligence Interview Program, 1953–1990,’ Intelligence and National Security 19, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 95–104. Jensen notes silences in the official records that make it difficult to fully assess this programme.

⁵⁷ Arnold Smith to Secretary of State for External Affairs, 30 November 1962, pt. 8, 2727-V-40, 5055, RG 25, LAC.

⁵⁸ Archived photos of the exhibit can be found online: www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/exhibitions/900/Technical_Designing_and_Art_by_Soviet_Children (accessed February 1, 2020).

⁵⁹ John Canaday, ‘Soviet Children and Art: Educators Over There and Over Here Hold Opposing Ideas of How Imagination Is Best Realized,’ New York Times, 4 February 1962.

⁶⁰ RCMP Memorandum to the USSEA, 21 February 1956, pt. 1, 10438-V-6-40, 6544, RG 25, LAC.

⁶¹ Ibid.

⁶² Maclean’s, 26 January 1963.

⁶³ N.A. Robertson to Walter Homburger, 16 May 1962, pt. 8, 2727-v-40, 5055, RG 25, LAC.

⁶⁴ R.A.D. Ford, ‘Memorandum’, 18 April 1956, pt. 1, 10438-V-6-40, 6544, RG 25, LAC.

⁶⁵ Jean Fournier, ‘Memorandum – Admission to Canada of Exhibition of Soviet Children’s Art,’ 27 April 1962, pt. 5, RG 25, 10438-V-6-40, 5375, RG 25, LAC.

⁶⁶ Marion Frank to Marcel Cadieux, 27 April 1962, pt. 5, 10438-V-6-40, 5375, RG 25, LAC.

⁶⁷ G.E. Cox to Leslie Hunt, 1 May 1962, pt. 5, RG 25, 10438-V-6-40, 5375, RG 25, LAC.

⁶⁸ Jean Fournier to Arrangements Committee, 4 May 1962, pt. 5, RG 25, 10438-V-6-40, 5375, RG 25, LAC.

⁶⁹ Marion Frank to Marcel Cadieux, 27 April 1962.

⁷⁰ In a collection of his previously published writings, Cowan referenced that he had ‘travelled extensively’ in Eastern Europe but made no mention of Soviet contacts. See Jack Cowan, My Outlook (Toronto: Canadian Jewish Outlook, 1974).

⁷¹ ‘Subject: CP and USA International Relations,’ FBI Memo (Secret) sent to FBI Director from SAC, New York, 22 July 1960. This file can be accessed through the FBI’s online portal: https://vault.fbi.gov/.

⁷² Jean Fournier, ‘Memorandum – Admission to Canada of Exhibition of Soviet Children’s Art,’ 27 April 1962, pt. 5, 10438-V-6-40, 5375, RG 25, LAC.

⁷³ N.A. Robinson, ‘Memorandum for the Minister: Girls’ Bandurist Trio of Kiev,’ 5 February 1960, 10438-V-6-40, RG 25, LAC.

⁷⁴ Inspector J.E.M. Barrette to Visa Control Section, Canadian Embassy, ‘Re: Visa Control Manual of Instruction,’ 1 March 1961, C311-42-2-3, Supp. J, S-13, vol.1, RG 25, LAC.

⁷⁵ See, for example, the 1958 Lacy-Zaroubin Agreement between the US and the USSR. https://librariesandcoldwarculturalexchange.wordpress.com/text-of-lacy-zaroubin-agreement-january-27-1958/.

⁷⁶ D. Beavis, Secretary of the Security Sub-Panel, Privy Council Office, ‘Memorandum to Security Officers,‘ 3 November 1961, S-1950-4-146/37-1, vol. 5, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁷⁷ See Susan L. Carruthers, Cold War Captives: Imprisonment, Escape, and Brainwashing (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).

⁷⁸ ‘Memorandum for the JIC,’ letter from the Chairman of the Visits Panel, 27 June 1956, pt. 1, 1950-4-146/37-1, R112, LAC, [#A-2016-00-297].

⁷⁹ Ian McKay, Rebels, Reds, Radicals: Rethinking Canada’s Left History (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2005), 72.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Fonds de Recherche du Québec-Société et Culture.

Notes on contributors

Brandon Webb

Brandon Webb is a history PhD candidate at Concordia University working on twentieth century US media and cultural history. His previous articles have appeared in American Quarterly and the Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television. Currently, he is writing his dissertation, which focuses on the cultural and labour politics of political cartooning in post-Second World War America.