Waging the Cold War: the origins and launch of Western cooperation to absorb migrants from Eastern Europe, 1948–57

ABSTRACT

This article reconstructs the gradual process leading the Western powers to cooperate to absorb migrants from Eastern Europe, from the February 1948 Czechoslovak coup d’état to the 1956–57 Hungarian crisis. This study reveals that cooperation to manage migration became a major component of Western Cold War strategy. Centred on the German predicament, it was first a way to contain the Soviet Union by reducing the pressures affecting Western countries bordering Eastern Europe. It also became an offensive strategy aiming at encouraging outflows from Eastern Europe to weaken Communist governments. Only cooperation at a Western level could achieve those objectives.

KEYWORDS:

• Cold War
• migration
• ICEM
• Hungarian crisis
• refugees

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

¹ ‘The Western powers’ or ‘the West’ refer to the United States, the member countries of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), Australia, and Canada. ‘East European countries’ or ‘the East’ refer to the Soviet Union and the people’s democracies of central Europe. Both groupings acquired greater cohesion with the creation of the OEEC, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in 1948–49.

² Western organisations included the OEEC and the Council of Europe. Broader organisations were the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).

³ For previous studies on these organisations: Jérôme Elie, “The Historical Roots of Cooperation between the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and the International Organisation for Migration,” Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organisations 16, no. 3 (July 2010); and Lina Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’ in the Early Cold War: The Inter-Governmental Committee for European Migration (Corinth: University of the Peloponnese, 2015).

⁴ D. Gusztáv Kecskés, “Les Composantes d’une action humanitaire hors du commun: L’Accueil en Occident des réfugiés hongrois de 1956,” Relations internationales 172, no. 4 (2017): 128.

⁵ For previous connections between immigration from the East and the Cold War: Kim Salomon, “The Cold War Heritage: UNRRA and the IRO as Predecessors of UNHCR,” in The Uprooted: Forced Migration as an International Problem in the Post-War Era, ed. Göran Rystad (Lund: Lund University Press, 1990), 172; and K. Salomon, Refugees in the Cold War: Toward a New International Refugee Regime in the Early Postwar Era (Lund: Lund University Press, 1991), 245.

⁶ On the role of Germany in the Cold War: Carolyn Woods Eisenberg, Drawing the Line: The American Decision to Divide Germany, 1944–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 488; Marc Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–63 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 105. For an emphasis on Italian migrants: Marina Maccari Clayton, “‘Communists of the Stomach:’ Italian Migration and International Relations in the Cold War Era,” Studi emigrazione, no. 155 (2004); and Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 44–5, 187.

⁷ For propaganda or intelligence objectives: Salomon, “The Cold War Heritage,” 167; Gil Loescher, The UNHCR and World Politics: A Perilous Path (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 54; Emma Haddad, The Refugee in International Society: Between Sovereigns (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 138–43; Susan Lisa Carruthers, Cold War Captives: Imprisonment, Escape, and Brainwashing (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); and Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 51, 178, 317, 320, 325.

⁸ For US policies: Göran Rystad, “Victims of Oppression or Ideological Weapons? Aspects of U.S. Refugee Policy in the Postwar Era,” in The Uprooted; ed., G. Rystad, Carl Joseph Bon Tempo, Americans at the Gate: The United States and Refugees During the Cold War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008); Carruthers, Cold War Captives.

⁹ Gerard Daniel Cohen, In War’s Wake: Europe’s Displaced Persons in the Postwar Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 158; and Kecskés, “Les Composantes d’une action humanitaire.”

¹⁰ Haddad, The Refugee in International Society, 139–43.

¹¹ Michel Hubert, “La Population allemande: ruptures et continuités,” in Allemagne 1945–61: De la catastrophe à la construction du Mur, ed. Jean-Paul Cahn and Ulrich Pfeil (Villeneuve d’Ascq: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, 2008), 84.

¹² Patrick Major, “Going West: The Open Border and the Problem of Republikflucht,” in The Workers’ and Peasants’ State: Communism and Society in East Germany under Ulbricht, 1945–71, ed. Patrick Major and Jonathan Osmond (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), 191.

¹³ ‘Summary record of the 3^rd meeting,’ Brussels Migration Conference, MCB/SR/3, 23-4, 20 December 1951, National Archives Records Administration, Washington DC (henceforth ‘NARA’): quoted in Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 224.

¹⁴ Report from the Special Representative of the Council of Europe for national refugees and overpopulation to the Committee of Ministers, Consultative Assembly, 7^th ordinary session, Doc. 331, 10 Feburary 1955, Archives of the Council of Europe, Strasbourg, https://publicsearch.coe.int accessed 9 May 2019 (henceforth ‘ACE’).

¹⁵ Volker Ackermann, “Politische Flüchtlinge oder unpolitische Zuwanderer aus der DDR? Die Debatte um den echten Flüchtling in Westdeutschland von 1945 bis 1961,” in 50 Jahre Bundesrepublik – 50 Jahre Einwanderung: Nachkriegsgeschichte als Migrationsgeschichte, ed. Jan Motte, Rainer Ohliger, and Anne von Oswald (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 1999), 85.

¹⁶ Salomon, Refugees in the Cold War, 85–6.

¹⁷ Major, “Going West,” 197.

¹⁸ Volker Ackermann, “Migration in Deutschland 1945–55,” in Rückkehr aus der Emigration nach 1945, ed. Wolfgang Blaschke, Karola Fings, and Cordula Lissner (Cologne: Verein EL-DE-Haus Köln, 1997), 17.

¹⁹ Ian Connor, Refugees and Expellees in Post-War Germany (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), 190.

²⁰ Major, “Going West,” 193.

²¹ Ackermann, “Migration in Deutschland 1945–1955,” 18. German Basic Law, Article 16 (2), in Bundesgesetzblatt, 1, No. 1, 23 May 1949. OEEC Film 126, MO(57)14, Annexe III, Archives of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris (henceforth ‘OECD Archives’).

²² Brendan Simms, Europe: The Struggle for Supremacy, from 1453 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 2013), Ch. 7.

²³ Ackermann, “Migration in Deutschland 1945–55,” 17.

²⁴ Fonds de réétablissement du Conseil de l’Europe, Exercice 1956–57. Rapport du Gouverneur au Conseil d’Administration, 1 February 1958, 12, Historical Archives of the European Union, Florence.

²⁵ Office of Administration of the U.S. High Commission for Germany, Unemployment in Western Germany: A Graphic Study (Frankfurt A/M: January 1950), 59, in B10: 412-00: 2365, Auswärtiges Amt, Politisches Archiv, Berlin (henceforth ‘AAPA’).

²⁶ Anna Holian, Between National Socialism and Soviet Communism: Displaced Persons in Postwar Germany (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2011), 18.

²⁷ Connor, Refugees and Expellees, 144.

²⁸ Volker Ackermann, “Integration von Ausländern und Flüchtlingen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der DDR in der Nachkriegszeit: Ein Überblick,” in Integration von Aussiedlern: eine Herausforderung für die Weiterbildung, ed. Hans-Peter Baumeister (Weinheim: Deutscher Studien Verlag 1991), 80.

²⁹ Connor, Refugees and Expellees, 139–40.

³⁰ B 136/2719, 181 and B 136/2720, 25, Bundesarchiv, Koblenz: cited in Major, “Going West,” 198. Ackermann, “Migration in Deutschland 1945–55,” 14.

³¹ “Vorschlag der deutschen Delegation zur Frage der Auswanderung,” 15 February 1950, B10: 412-00, 1877, Band 1, AAPA. Europe: Political and Economic Developments, Vol. IV, Part 1, No. 76 840.411/7-551, 173-5, 19 June 1951, Foreign Relations of the United States (henceforth ‘FRUS’). OEEC Film 71, C(51)175, Annexe B, OECD Archives.

³² F7 16115, Allemagne et Autriche, 1947–52, Archives nationales, Paris (henceforth ‘AN’).

³³ Alan Steele Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–51 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 335–50.

³⁴ Report on behalf of the Special Committee on Refugee Questions by E. de la Vallée-Poussin, Consultative Assembly, Ordinary session 1950, Doc. 102, 25 August 1950, ACE.

³⁵ Tara Zahra, The Great Departure: Mass Migration from Eastern Europe and the Making of the Free World (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2016), 194.

³⁶ Verbatim Report III of the Economic and Social Committee, 56–7, Hague Congress, 8 May 1948, ACE.

³⁷ Rainer Schulze, “The Refugee Population in Western Germany after World War 2: The Case of Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen),” in The Uprooted, ed. Rystad, 313.

³⁸ Connor, Refugees and Expellees, 116.

³⁹ “The Refugees and the Demographic Problems Presented by Western Germany,” 26 February 1949, Foreign Office Files, FO 1030/119, National Archives, Kew (henceforth ‘NA’): quoted in Schulze, “The Refugee Population,” 314.

⁴⁰ FO 944/318, 4 June 1949, NA: quoted in Connor, Refugees and Expellees, 121.

⁴¹ Connor, Refugees and Expellees, 125–9, 151.

⁴² Adam R. Seipp, Strangers in the Wild Place: Refugees, Americans, and a German Town, 1945–52 (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2013), 189–91.

⁴³ OEEC Film 124, MO(50)5, 1 February 1950, OECD Archives.

⁴⁴ For an emphasis on the Italian case: Clayton, “‘Communists of the Stomach’,” 587–8.

⁴⁵ Francis Eugene Walter, Expellees and Refugees of German Ethnic Origin: Report of a Special Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives pursuant to H. Res. 238 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950).

⁴⁶ Europe: Political and Economic Developments,’ 19 June 1951, FRUS.

⁴⁷ Council of Europe, No Room for Them: Commentary on the Problem of Refugees and Surplus Elements of Population in Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1953), 13: quoted in Cohen, In War’s Wake, 122–3.

⁴⁸ Joseph Boris Schechtman, The Refugees in the World: Displacement and Integration (New York: Barnes, 1963), 44.

⁴⁹ Ibid.

⁵⁰ Haddad, The Refugee in International Society, 139–43; D. Segeš, “Remigration Tschechoslowakischen Staatsbürger aus der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in die ČSR in den 1950er-Jahren,” in Flüchtlinge und Asyl im Nachbarland: Die Tschechoslowakei und Deutschland 1933 bis 1989, ed. Detlef Brandes, Jiří Pešek, and Edita Ivaničková (Essen: Klartext Verlag, 2018), 231, 233.

⁵¹ Hope Millard Harrison, Driving the Soviets up the Wall: Soviet-East German Relations, 1953–61 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 24, 27, 51, 72, and 100.

⁵² John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 129–30.

⁵³ Quoted in: Harrison, Driving the Soviets up the Wall, 27.

⁵⁴ Cited in Harrison, Driving the Soviets up the Wall, 51.

⁵⁵ Zahra, The Great Departure, 220.

⁵⁶ Veto of the Internal Security Bill, Doc. 254, Public Papers Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library & Museum.

⁵⁷ NSC 86/1, US Policy on Soviet and Satellite Defectors. Mentioned in: Report by the Operations Coordinating Board, 1955–57, Dwight D. Eisenhower XXV, 19, State Department, S/S-NSC, Lot 63 D 351, NSC 86 Series, FRUS.

⁵⁸ NSC 174, “United States Policy Toward the Soviet Satellites in Eastern Europe,” 11 December 1953: in Csaba Békés, Malcolm Byrne, and János Rainer, eds., The 1956 Hungarian Revolution: A History in Documents (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2002), Doc. 3.

⁵⁹ Loescher, The UNHCR and World Politics, 74.

⁶⁰ “Steps to be taken towards the moral re-adaptation of young refugees from behind the Iron Curtain,” Consultative Assembly, 8^th ordinary session (1^st part), 16-21 April 1956, Documents, Working papers, Vol. I, Doc. 492, 16 April 1956, ACE.

⁶¹ NSC 174, “United States Policy Toward the Soviet Satellites.”

⁶² Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’; Clayton, “‘Communists of the Stomach’.”

⁶³ Displaced Persons Act of 1948, U.S. Statutes at Large, 80^th Cong., Sess. II, Ch. 647, 1009-14.

⁶⁴ David Jacobson, Rights Across Borders: Immigration and the Decline of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 49–50; Daniel J. Tichenor, Dividing Lines: The Politics of Immigration Control in America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), 195.

⁶⁵ Refugee Relief Act of 1953, U.S. Statutes at Large, Public Law 203, Ch. 336, 400–7.

⁶⁶ See citations in the introduction for previous scholarly attention to this piece of legislation.

⁶⁷ Matthew Frank and Jessica Reinisch, eds., Refugees in Europe, 1919–1959: A Forty Years’ Crisis? (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017), 186.

⁶⁸ This completes: Frank and Reinisch, eds., Refugees in Europe, 122–7, 136.

⁶⁹ “Vorschlag der deutschen Delegation,” 15 February 1950, AAPA.

⁷⁰ Report relating to the Draft Constitution of ICEM, Consultative Assembly, 5^th ordinary session (2^nd part), Documents, Working papers, Vol. III, Doc. 158, 23 June 1953, ACE.

⁷¹ Emigration outre-mer, Résolution (53) 20 (7 May 1953), Res(53)20, ACE.

⁷² Frank and Reinisch, eds., Refugees in Europe, 127.

⁷³ OEEC Film 84, C(52)002, Appendix 1, Annexe 4, 15 October 1951, OECD Archives.

⁷⁴ Report of the Manpower Committee, July 1950, OEEC Film 124, MO(50)28, OECD Archives.

⁷⁵ Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 296.

⁷⁶ Ibid., 192.

⁷⁷ Andrew Paul Janco, “Soviet ‘Displaced Persons’ in Europe, 1941–51” (Chicago: The University of Chicago, 2012), 340–1.

⁷⁸ Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 147–9, 169, and 205.

⁷⁹ Ibid., 191.

⁸⁰ OEEC Film 124, MO(52)6, Annexe II, 10 April 1952, OECD Archives.

⁸¹ OEEC Film 124, MO(51)13, 16 April 1951, OECD Archives.

⁸² OEEC Film 48, CE(50)003, 28 December 1949, OECD Archives. Lorenzo Mechi, L’Organizzazione internazionale del Lavoro e la Ricostruzione europea: Le basi sociali dell’integrazione economica (1931–57) (Rome: Ediesse, 2012), 136–7.

⁸³ OEEC Film 49, C(50)045, 13 February 1950, OECD Archives.

⁸⁴ Council Meeting, OEEC Film 46, C/M(50)011, 21 April 1950, OECD Archives.

⁸⁵ OEEC Film 49, C(50)123(Final), 9 June 1950, OECD Archives.

⁸⁶ OEEC Film 46, C/M(50)016, 9 June 1950, OECD Archives.

⁸⁷ Report of the Committee on Social Questions, Consultative Assembly, 2^nd session 1950, Documents, Working papers, Part 1, Doc. 1, Appendix IX, Conclusions adopted by the Preliminary Migration Conference in Geneva, April–May 1950, 10 August 1950, ACE.

⁸⁸ OEEC Film 84, C(52)128, 6 May 1952, OECD Archives.

⁸⁹ Resolution on European Migration, Migration Conference (Naples, October 1951), OEEC Film 84, C(52)002, Appendix 1, Annexe 1, OECD Archives.

⁹⁰ Recommendation for immediate action (Proposal by the Delegations of Austria, Germany, Greece, Italy and the Netherlands), OEEC Film 84, C(52)002, Appendix 1, Annexe 2, OECD Archives.

⁹¹ OEEC Film 129, MO/M(51)5, 12 September 1951, OECD Archives.

⁹² Maritime Transports Committee Meeting, OEEC Film 283, MT/M(51)7, 30 October 1951, OECD Archives.

⁹³ Frank and Reinisch, eds., Refugees in Europe, 127, 136.

⁹⁴ Extra- and intra-European migratory movements in recent years, OEEC Film 125, MO(54)54, Annexe I, 27 October 1954, OECD Archives. See also: 2^nd report on the activities of ICEM, Consultative Assembly, 6^th ordinary session (1^st Part), 20–29 May 1954, Documents, Working Papers, Vol. III, Doc. 233, Annexe I, Final report of numbers of migrants moved, 1 January–31 December 1953, 15 May 1954, ACE.

⁹⁵ OEEC Film 84, C(52)002, 16 January 1952, OECD Archives.

⁹⁶ Mechi, L’Organizzazione internazionale del Lavoro, 143.

⁹⁷ Letter of Belgian Permanent Delegate Count de Meeus to OEEC Secretary General Robert Marjolin, OEEC Film 73, C(51)344, 21 November 1951, OECD Archives.

⁹⁸ OEEC Film 171, SGD(1952)118, 18 October 1952, OECD Archives.

⁹⁹ Report on the activities of ICEM, Consultative Assembly, 5^th ordinary session (3^rd Part), 15-26 September 1953, Documents, Working Papers, Vol. IV, Doc. 176, 2 September 1953, ACE.

¹⁰⁰ Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 127; Elie, “The Historical Roots of Cooperation,” 350.

¹⁰¹ Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 108, 121. For comparable IRO figures: Matthew and Reinisch, eds., Refugees in Europe, 184.

¹⁰² OEEC Film 107, C/M(53)007, 20 March 1953, OECD Archives.

¹⁰³ Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 77.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid., 59.

¹⁰⁵ Doc. 233, 15 May 1954, ACE.

¹⁰⁶ Doc. 331, 10 February 1955, 26, 37, ACE. Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 176.

¹⁰⁷ Report on the activities of ICEM, Consultative Assembly, 6^th ordinary session (2^nd Part), 13-24 September 1954, Documents, Working Papers, Vol. IV, Doc. 268, 8 September 1954, ACE.

¹⁰⁸ Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 201.

¹⁰⁹ Ibid., 194, 196, and 203.

¹¹⁰ U.S. Congress, Subcommittee on Foreign Operations Appropriations of the House Committee on Appropriations, 84^th Congress, 1^st Session, Hearing on 28 June 1955, 428, 433: cited in Loescher, The UNHCR and World Politics, 74.

¹¹¹ Doc. 102, 25 August 1950, ACE.

¹¹² Resolution for the establishment of PICMME, Migration Conference (Brussels, 5 December 1951), OEEC Film 84, C(52)002, Appendix 3 and 4, OECD Archives.

¹¹³ For a different analysis: Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 47.

¹¹⁴ Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace, 114.

¹¹⁵ Andrew Paul Janco, “‘Unwilling’: The One-Word Revolution in Refugee Status, 1940–51,” Contemporary European History 23, no. 3 (2014): 441–5.

¹¹⁶ Summary Record of the 19^th Meeting in the Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons: quoted in Cohen, In War’s Wake, 153.

¹¹⁷ Gilad Ben-Nun, “From Ad Hoc to Universal: The International Refugee Regime from Fragmentation to Unity 1922–54,” Refugee Survey Quarterly 34, no. 2 (2015), 31–2.

¹¹⁸ UNHCR, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10 (accessed 9 May 2019).

¹¹⁹ Kazimierz Bem, “The Coming of a ‘Blank Cheque’–Europe, the 1951 Convention, and the 1967 Protocol,” International Journal of Refugee Law 16, no. 4 (2004): 617.

¹²⁰ UNHCR, States Parties to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, http://www.unhcr.org/3b73b0d63.html (accessed 9 May 2019).

¹²¹ Bem, “The Coming of a ‘Blank Cheque’,” 626.

¹²² UNHCR, States Parties to the 1951 Convention.

¹²³ Bon Tempo, Americans at the Gate, 64. NSC 5608/1, “U.S. Policy toward the Soviet Satellites in Eastern Europe,” 18 July 1956, Record Group 59, Lot 63D351, Box 88, NARA.

¹²⁴ NSC 5616/2, “Interim U.S. Policy on Developments Poland and Hungary,” 19 November 1956, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, Records 1953–61, Policy Papers Subseries, Box 19, White House Office, NARA.

¹²⁵ Arthur A. Markowitz, “Humanitarianism Versus Restrictionism: The United States and the Hungarian Refugees,” The International Migration Review 7, no. 1 (1973): 47.

¹²⁶ Dwight David Eisenhower, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956–61, Vol. II (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 84.

¹²⁷ For what follows: Doc. 699, 23 September 1957, ACE. Report on the refugee situation in Austria, Consultative Assembly, 11^th ordinary session (2^nd part), 14–18 September 1959, Documents, Working papers, Vol. IV, Doc. 1034, 12 September 1959, ACE.

¹²⁸ FO 371/124082, NA: cited in Loescher, The UNHCR and World Politics, 83.

¹²⁹ Speech of Oskar Helmer before the UNREF Meeting in Geneva, 29 January 1957, Bundesministerium für Auswärtige Angelegenheiten, Carton 433, Pol-II, Osterreichisches Staatsarchiv, Archiv der Republik: cited in Zahra, The Great Departure, 213–14.

¹³⁰ Doc. 699, ACE.

¹³¹ Ackermann, “Migration in Deutschland 1945–55,” 21.

¹³² Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 139.

¹³³ Doc. 699, 24, ACE. Elie, “The Historical Roots of Cooperation,” 354.

¹³⁴ Doc. 1034, ACE. Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 229.

¹³⁵ Bon Tempo, Americans at the Gate, 62, 67.

¹³⁶ Loescher, The UNHCR and World Politics, 87.

¹³⁷ UNHCR, The State of the World’s Refugees, 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action (Geneva: UNHCR; Oxford University Press, 2000), 31.

¹³⁸ Kecskés, “Les Composantes d’une action humanitaire,” 134–5.

¹³⁹ Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 140.

¹⁴⁰ Doc. 1034, 4, ACE.

¹⁴¹ Venturas, ed., International ‘Migration Management’, 182.

¹⁴² Kecskés, “Les Composantes d’une action humanitaire,” 129.

¹⁴³ Cohen, In War’s Wake, 158; Kecskés, “Les Composantes d’une action humanitaire,” 132.

¹⁴⁴ Kecskés, “Les Composantes d’une action humanitaire,” 128, 136.

¹⁴⁵ Loescher, The UNHCR and World Politics, 87.

¹⁴⁶ Békés, eds., The 1956 Hungarian Revolution, Doc. 109, 16 January 1957.

¹⁴⁷ Cohen, In War’s Wake, 124.

¹⁴⁸ Schechtman, The Refugees in the World, 9. Report on the activities of ICEM (1 January–31 December 1964), Doc. 1893, 12, ACE.

¹⁴⁹ Elie, “The Historical Roots of Cooperation,” 348.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Emmanuel Comte

A Senior Researcher at CIDOB, Barcelona,

Emmanuel Comte is a graduate of the École Normale Supérieure in Paris and holds a PhD in History from Sorbonne University. He has held academic positions at the European University Institute, the University of California, Berkeley, and the Vienna School of International Studies. He has recently published. The History of the European Migration Regime: Germany's Strategic Hegemony (Routledge, 2018).