‘A question of survival’: Canada and the Rapacki Plan for the denuclearisation of Central Europe, 1957–59

ABSTRACT

In October 1957, Poland proposed the Rapacki Plan for the denuclearisation of Central Europe. While North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) members attacked the initiative, Canada viewed it as a means to ease Cold War tensions. Although Canada joined with its allies to reject the Plan, it embarked on a quest for counterproposals to restrain NATO nuclear sharing and reduce the chances of nuclear war. Canada’s efforts alarmed Western allies and helped lead to a second Rapacki Plan. Overall, this article details Canada’s struggle to assert itself as a middle power and provides a robust example of Western interest in the Rapacki Plan.

KEYWORDS:

• Canada
• Poland
• Rapacki Plan
• nuclear weapons
• denuclearisation

Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank Jim Hershberg, David Holloway, Susie Colbourn, the participants of the 2018 ‘Nuclear Histories of Canada’ conference held at the University of Toronto, the History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive at the Wilson Center, the staff at the Library and Archives Canada, and the anonymous peer reviewers from Cold War History for their contributions to this work. The author acknowledges funding from the Stanton Foundation and the MacArthur Foundation.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

¹ I use the term ‘denuclearisation’ synonymously with ‘nuclear-free zone’ to mean the prohibition of nuclear weapons in a given geographic area. This definition is consistent with its use by historical actors. See, Ryan Alexander Musto, ‘The Storied Past of “Denuclearization”’, 20 September 2018, Sources and Methods, History and Public Policy Program, the Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/the-storied-past-denuclearization (accessed 3 February 2020).

² Address by the Polish Foreign Minister (Rapacki) to the General Assembly [Extract], 2 October 1957, Documents on Disarmament: 1945–1959, Volume II (Washington: U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, August 1960), 889.

³ See, for example, David Stefancic, ‘The Rapacki Plan: A Case Study of East European Diplomacy’, East European Quarterly 21, no. 4 (1987): 401–12; Piotr Długołęcki, ‘An Unknown Context of the Rapacki Plan’, The Polish Quarterly of International Affairs 20, no. 1 (2011): 59–72; Maruzsa Zoltàn, ‘Denuclearization in Central Europe? The Rapacki Plan during the Cold War’, Cold War Research Center (Budapest: November 2010). http://www.atomwaffenaz.info/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/RapackiPlan_Maruzsa.pdf (accessed 3 February 2019); Piotr Wandycz, ‘Adam Rapacki and the Search for European Security’, in Gordon A. Craig and Francis L. Loewenheim, eds., The Diplomats, 1939–1979 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 289–317; Hansjakob Stehle, Independent Satellite: Society and Politics in Poland Since 1945 (New York: Praeger, 1965), 222–32; and Douglas E. Selvage, ‘Poland, the German Democratic Republic and the German question, 1955–1967ʹ (PhD Diss., Yale Unive rsity, 1998): 55–60, 73–6.

⁴ Steel to Hancock, 31 January 1958, FO 371/135628, The British National Archives, Kew (hereafter TNA).

⁵ Ryan Alexander Musto, ‘Polish Perspectives on the Rapacki Plan for the Denuclearization of Central Europe’, 23 September 2019, Sources and Methods, History and Public Policy Program, the Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/polish-perspectives-the-rapacki-plan-for-the-denuclearization-central-europe (accessed 3 February 2020).

⁶ Department of State to the Mission to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and European Regional Organizations, 21 January 1958, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1958–1960: Vol. X, Part 1, Eastern Europe Region; Soviet Union; Cyprus, doc. 1, 1–3.

⁷ See, for example, Maria Pasztor, ‘France, Great Britain, and Polish Conceptions of Disarmament, 1957–1964ʹ, Acta Poloniae Historica 90 (2004): 113–55; James R. Ozinga, The Rapacki Plan: The 1957 Proposal to Denuclearize Central Europe and an Analysis of Its Rejection (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 1989); Shane J. Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid: The Quest for American Atomic Supremacy from World War II to the Present (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 127–8; and David Tal, The American Nuclear Disarmament Dilemma, 1945–1963 (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2008), 121–2.

⁸ For accounts that overlook variations in the Western response, see, for example, John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 137; Jozef Goldblat, ‘Nuclear Weapon Free Zones: A History and Assessment’, The Nonproliferation Review 4, no. 3 (1997): 18; Joseph M. Siracusa and Aiden Warren, ‘The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime: An Historical Perspective’, Diplomacy & Statecraft 29, no. 1 (2018): 16.

⁹ Canada and Poland established diplomatic relations at the embassy level in April 1960. See, ‘Poland in Canada’, Poland’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs. https://www.gov.pl/web/canada-en/bilateral-relations (accessed 3 February 2020).

¹⁰ See, for example, Ozinga, Rapacki; Stefancic, ‘Rapacki’, 407; Długołęcki, ‘Unknown Context’, 64; Zoltàn, ‘Denuclearization’, 12–13; Wandycz, ‘Rapacki’, 306; Trevor Lloyd, Canada in World Affairs, 1957–1959 (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1968), 159, 165.

¹¹ Albert Legault and Michel Fortmann, A Diplomacy of Hope: Canada and Disarmament, 1945–1988 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992), 158–61.

¹² Asa McKercher and Timothy Andrews Sayle, ‘Skyhawk, Skyshield, and the Soviets: Revisiting Canada’s Cold War’, The Historical Journal 61, no. 2 (2018): 453–5.

¹³ Susan Colbourn and Timothy Andrews Sayle, eds., The Nuclear North: Histories of Canada in the Atomic Age (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2020).

¹⁴ ‘The Realities of Disarmament’, in Diplomacy in Evolution: 30^th Couchiching Conference, ed. D.L.B. Hamlin (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1961), 84.

¹⁵ In late 1957, Canadian officials also noted ‘certain public pressures’ across the West in favour of the Rapacki Plan due to George F. Kennan, the so-called ‘father’ of US containment doctrine, who promoted military disengagement in Central Europe when he delivered the annual Reith Lectures over the radio for the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). See, Summary Reports: 1958 – No. 11, External Affairs, 10 February 1958, Record Group (hereafter: RG) 25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa (hereafter LAC).

¹⁶ Marc Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 156–76; and Timothy Andrews Sayle, Enduring Alliance: A History of NATO and the Postwar Global Order (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2019), 43.

¹⁷ Pasztor, ‘France’, 118–19.

¹⁸ Holmes to External Affairs, 3 December 1957, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

¹⁹ See, for example, Mark Kramer, ‘The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises in Poland and Hungary: Reassessments and New Findings’, Journal of Contemporary History 32, no. 2 (April 1998): 163–214.

²⁰ Campbell to Holmes, 11 December 1957, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

²¹ Smith to Dean, 21 January 1958, FO 371/137079, TNA.

²² Ritchie to External Affairs, 29 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

²³ Watkins to Holmes, 6 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

²⁴ Beam to Leverich, 24 December 1957, Digital National Security Archive, Washington.

²⁵ Jamie Glazov, Canadian Policy Towards Khrushchev’s Soviet Union (Montreal: McGill–Queen’s University Press, 2002), 85.

²⁶ Campbell to Holmes, 11 December 1957, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

²⁷ Glazov, Canadian, 85–7.

²⁸ H. Basil Robinson, Diefenbaker’s World: A Populist in Foreign Affairs (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989), 30–1.

²⁹ McKercher and Sayle, ‘Skyhawk’, 458.

³⁰ Bulganin to Eisenhower, 10 December 1957, RG59, HM 1993, Box 139, Executive Secretariat, Conference Files 1949 – 1963, CF 943: Misc. File and Serv. Msgs. NATO HDS of GOVT MTG., Paris, December 1957, National Archives, College Park, MD (hereafter NARA).

³¹ Summary Reports: 1958 – No. 11, External Affairs, 10 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

³² Léger to Wilgress, 10 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

³³ Wilgress to Smith, 9 December 1957, Documents on Canadian External Relations, vol. 24, Part 4, doc. 252.

³⁴ Patricia I. McMahon, Essence of Indecision: Diefenbaker’s Nuclear Policy, 1957–1963 (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2009), 18–20.

³⁵ Robinson, Diefenbaker’s, 29.

³⁶ For Canada’s nuclear aspirations under sharing agreements, see, for example, McMahon, Essence; Sean M. Maloney, Learning to Love the Bomb: Canada’s Nuclear Weapons During the Cold War (Washington: Potomac Books, 2007); Erika Simpson, NATO and the Bomb: Defenders Confront Critics (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001); and Duane Bratt, ‘Canada’s Nuclear Schizophrenia’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 58, no. 2 (March/April 2002): 44–50.

³⁷ Robinson, Diefenbaker’s, 28–9.

³⁸ McMahon, Essence, 19–20.

³⁹ Wilgress to Smith, 17 December 1957, Documents on Canadian External Relations, vol. 24, Part 4, doc. 254; Robinson, Diefenbaker’s, 30–1.

⁴⁰ Robinson to Diefenbaker, 9 January 1958, Documents on Canadian External Relations, vol. 24, Part 4, doc. 256.

⁴¹ John English, The Worldly Years: The Life of Lester B. Pearson, Volume II: 1949–1972 (Toronto: Vintage Canada, 1992), 84.

⁴² Robinson, Diefenbaker’s, 28.

⁴³ Léger to Diefenbaker, 16 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁴⁴ Léger to Wilgress, 10 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁴⁵ Legault and Fortmann, Diplomacy, 113.

⁴⁶ John Hilliker and Donald Barry, Canada’s Department of External Affairs, Vol. II: Coming of Age, 1946–1968 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1995), 151.

⁴⁷ Robinson, Diefenbaker’s, 108.

⁴⁸ English, Worldly, 318.

⁴⁹ Léger to Wilgress, 10 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁵⁰ Ibid.

⁵¹ Ibid.

⁵² Ibid.

⁵³ Léger to Diefenbaker, 16 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁵⁴ Léger to Wilgress, 10 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁵⁵ C-R(53)3 – Summary Record of a Meeting of the Council, 15 January 1958, NATO Archives Online (hereafter NATO). http://archives.nato.int/uploads/r/null/2/7/27829/C-R_58_3_ENG.pdf (accessed 3 February 2020); Wilgress to External Affairs, 16 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁵⁶ C-R(53)3 – Summary Record of a meeting of the Council, 15 January 1958, NATO. http://archives.nato.int/uploads/r/null/2/7/27829/C-R_58_3_ENG.pdf (accessed 3 February 2020).

⁵⁷ ‘Department III, File Note No. 1, ‘Canada’s Attitude to the Polish Proposal to Establish a Nuclear-free Zone in Europe’, 10 January 1958, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Polskie dokumenty dyplomatyczne 1958 (Warsaw: Polski Instytut Spraw Miedzynarodowych, 2011), Document #14, pp. 29–32. Translated by Jerzy Giebułtowski. https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/208860 (accessed 3 February 2020).

⁵⁸ Ibid.

⁵⁹ Paper Prepared by Chairman of the Joint Disarmament Committee (Rothschild), 21 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁶⁰ External Affairs to NATO Delegation, 20 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I. LAC.

⁶¹ Ozinga, Rapacki, 143–6.

⁶² Washington to External Affairs, 20 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. II, LAC.

⁶³ External Affairs to NATO Delegation, 20 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁶⁴ Summary Reports: 1958 – No. 11, External Affairs, 10 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

⁶⁵ External Affairs to NATO Delegation, 20 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁶⁶ John Hilliker, ‘Middle Power in Perspective: The Historical Section in Canada’s Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade’, International Journal 66, no. 1 (2010–11): 192–3.

⁶⁷ Léger to London, 3 February 1958, RG 25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC; Office of the High Commissioner for the United Kingdom in Ottawa to Lintott, 2 April 1958, DO 35/10814, TNA.

⁶⁸ Office of the High Commissioner for the United Kingdom in Ottawa to Lintott, 2 April 1958, DO 35/10814, TNA.

⁶⁹ Watkins to Léger, 15 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁷⁰ Office of the High Commissioner for the United Kingdom in Ottawa to Lintott, 2 April 1958, DO 35/10814, TNA.

⁷¹ Note by the Canadian Delegation on Disengagement, NATO Committee on European Security, 17 March 1958, DO 35/10814, TNA.

⁷² Wilgress to External Affairs, 11 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

⁷³ Crean to Léger, 6 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

⁷⁴ A. Smith to External Affairs, 27 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

⁷⁵ Léger to NATO Delegation, 13 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

⁷⁶ Hooton to London, NATO Delegation, Washington, and Bonn, 11 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁷⁷ Léger to NATO Delegation, 13 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

⁷⁸ Léger to Wilgress, 28 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁷⁹ Léger to Diefenbaker, 2 April 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁸⁰ Léger to NATO Delegation, 13 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

⁸¹ Hooton to London, NATO Delegation, Washington, and Bonn, 11 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC; Lloyd, Canada, 160.

⁸² Note by the Canadian Delegation on Disengagement, NATO Committee on European Security, 17 March 1958, DO 35/10814, TNA.

⁸³ Hooton to Léger, 25 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

⁸⁴ The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) observed a Soviet IRBM test that travelled 950 nautical miles in June 1957. See, document 18 in James E. David, ed., ‘Starting to Crack a Hard Target: U.S. Intelligence Efforts Against the Soviet Missile Program through 1957’, Briefing Book #695, 5 February 2020, the National Security Archive. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence-nuclear-vault/2020-02-05/starting-crack-hard-target-us-intelligence-efforts-against-soviet-missile-program-through-1957 (accessed 6 February 2020).

⁸⁵ Paper Prepared by Chairman of the Joint Disarmament Committee (Rothschild), 21 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁸⁶ External Affairs to NATO Delegation, 20 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC; Léger to Wilgress, 28 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁸⁷ Ibid.

⁸⁸ External Affairs to NATO Delegation, 20 January 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. I, LAC.

⁸⁹ Léger to Wilgress, 28 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁹⁰ Ibid.

⁹¹ London to External Affairs, 18 March 1956, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC; Rothschild to Léger, 28 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁹² Robertson to External Affairs, 21 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁹³ London to External Affairs, 18 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁹⁴ Léger to Wilgress, 14 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁹⁵ Léger to Wilgress, 28 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁹⁶ Wilgress to External Affairs, 18 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁹⁷ MacKay to External Affairs, 5 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

⁹⁸ Foreign Office Minute (Hancock), 19 March 1958, FO 371/137087, TNA.

⁹⁹ Ibid.

¹⁰⁰ Hancock to Roberts, 21 March 1958, FO 371/137087, TNA.

¹⁰¹ Roberts to Hancock, 18 March 1958, FO 371/137087, TNA.

¹⁰² Léger to Washington, 28 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹⁰³ Bernard to Southam, 24 April 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC; Robertson to External Affairs, 25 April 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC; Paul W. Ward, ‘Reds Expand Atom-Free Plan’, The Baltimore Sun, 7 February 1958, 6; Reid to External Affairs, 8 April 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC; Léger to Washington, 28 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹⁰⁴ Léger to Washington, 28 March 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹⁰⁵ Washington to External Affairs, 3 April 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹⁰⁶ Washington to External Affairs, 25 April 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹⁰⁷ Smith to Washington, 22 April 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹⁰⁸ Dulles to Smith, 30 April 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹⁰⁹ Holmes to Léger, 8 May 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹¹⁰ Léger to Smith, 9 July 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹¹¹ Watkins to Léger, 25 August 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹¹² Ibid.; Erichsen-Brown to External Affairs, 30 July 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 3, LAC.

¹¹³ Léger to Smith, 4 October 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹¹⁴ Ibid.

¹¹⁵ C-M(58)117, 27 August 1958, NATO. http://archives.nato.int/report-on-norwegian-note-of-16th-june-by-european-security-committee (accessed 3 February 2020).

¹¹⁶ Léger to Smith, 4 October 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹¹⁷ Wandycz, ‘Rapacki’, 306.

¹¹⁸ External Affairs to NATO Delegation, 13 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4 LAC; LePan to NATO Delegation, 31 October 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹¹⁹ LePan to NATO Delegation, 31 October 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹²⁰ Ibid.

¹²¹ Ibid.

¹²² Ibid; Holmes to LePan, 25 October 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹²³ LePan to NATO Delegation, 31 October 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹²⁴ Foster to Brimelow, 21 July 1958, FO 371/137093, TNA.

¹²⁵ Wainman-Wood to Smith, 11 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹²⁶ Beaudry to External Affairs, 2 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC; Scarlett to London, 10 November 1958, FO 371/137094, TNA.

¹²⁷ Statement Made by Rapacki, 5 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹²⁸ LePan to Léger, 10 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC; Cameron to Robertson, 10 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹²⁹ LePan to Léger, 10 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹³⁰ The answer to this question had seemingly already been addressed with Poland’s initiative from mid-February.

¹³¹ LePan to Léger, 10 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4 , LAC.

¹³² Hope M. Harrison, Driving the Soviets up the Wall: Soviet-East German Relations, 1953–1961 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 105–16.

¹³³ See, for example, London to External Affairs, 14 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹³⁴ Glazov, Canadian, 88.

¹³⁵ Robert Bothwell, Alliance and Illusion: Canada and the World, 1945–1984 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2007), 164.

¹³⁶ Oslo to External Affairs, 17 December 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹³⁷ Cameron to LePan, 18 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹³⁸ External Affairs to NATO Delegation, 18 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4. LAC.

¹³⁹ External Affairs to NATO Delegation, 10 November 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4. LAC.

¹⁴⁰ Hilliker and Barry, Canada’s, 148.

¹⁴¹ Office of the High Commissioner in Ottawa to Earl of Home, 26 March 1959, DO 35/10848, TNA.

¹⁴² Isabel Campbell, ‘The Defence Dilemma, 1957–63: Reconsidering the Strategic, Technological, and Operational Contexts’, in Reassessing the Rogue Tory: Canadian Foreign Relations in the Diefenbaker Era Janice Cavell and Ryan M. Touhey, eds. (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2018), 128–9.

¹⁴³ Davis To Defence Liaison (1) Division, 6 April 1959, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹⁴⁴ Foulkes to Tremblay, 6 July 1959, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹⁴⁵ Southam to Robertson, 7 April 1959, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC; Southam to External Affairs, 21 April 1959, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 4, LAC.

¹⁴⁶ Summary Reports: 1958 – No. 11, External Affairs, 10 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

¹⁴⁷ VP/W D-3/3, Brief for the Vice President’s Visit to Poland, August 1959, RG59, 12C.3 Rapacki Plan 1958 – 1962, Box 238, Special Assistant of State for Atomic Energy and Outer Space, General Records Relating to Disarmament 1942–1962, NARA; The Rapacki Plan though did persist into the 1960s. See, for example, Andrzej Albrecht, The Rapacki Plan: New Aspects (Warsaw: Zachodnia Agencja Prasowa, 1963).

¹⁴⁸ Summary Reports: 1958 – No. 11, External Affairs, 10 February 1958, RG25, 50105-K-40, vol. 2, LAC.

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Ryan A. Musto

Dr. Ryan A. Musto is a MacArthur Nuclear Security Fellow with the Center for International Security and Cooperation at Stanford University. He previously served as a Stanton Nuclear Security Fellow with the Security Studies Program at MIT. Ryan holds a PhD in history from The George Washington University, and master's degrees in international and world history from Columbia University and the London School of Economics. He is currently working on an international history of regional denuclearisation.