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ABSTRACT
This paper investigates Pakistan’s atomic energy programme during the years of Ayub Khan’s rule by focusing on the negotiations leading to the construction of the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant. Drawing for the first time on primary sources obtained from the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, the paper shows how nuclear power and research were key elements of a controversial development strategy elaborated by part of the Pakistani elite as well as the entanglement among foreign aid, political ambitions and predicted economic growth, with Cold War considerations claiming the lion’s share in determining the conditions and eventual kick-off of the project.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 ‘Usmani to Salam’, March 28, 1967, M100, Abdus Salam Papers (hereafter ASP), International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste.
2 ‘Notes to Nucleonics Week Generating Tables for August 2021’, Nucleonics Week, October 14, 2021.
3 On India, see Robert Anderson, Nucleus and Nation: Scientists, International Networks, and Power in India (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2010); George Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Nuclear Non-proliferation (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002); Raj Chengappa, Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of India’s Quest to be a Nuclear Power (New Delhi: HarperCollins, 2002); Itty Abraham, The Making of Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy and the Postcolonial State (New York: ZED Books, 1998). On Pakistan, see Malcolm Craig, America, Britain and Pakistan’s Nuclear Weapons Programme, 1974–1980 (Cham: Palgrave, 2017); Feroz Hassan Khan, Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012); Bhumitra Chakma, Pakistan’s Nuclear Weapons (London: Routledge, 2007); Bhumitra Chakma, ‘Road to Chagai: Pakistan’s Nuclear Programme, Its Sources and Motivations’, Modern Asian Studies 36, no. 4 (2002): 871–912.
4 See Yogesh Joshi, ‘Between Principles and Pragmatism: India and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime in the POST-PNE Era, 1974–1980’, The International History Review 40, no. 5 (2018): 1073–93.
5 For example Šumit Ganguly and Paul Kapur, India, Pakistan, and the Bomb: Debating Nuclear Stability in South Asia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010).
6 Cf. Muhammad Reza Kazimi, A Concise History of Pakistan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2009), 183–224.
7 David Holloway, ‘Conclusion: Reflections on the Nuclear Order’, The International History Review 40, no. 5 (2018): 1210–18.
8 Cf. Farzana Shaikh, Making Sense of Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009).
9 Cf. David Engerman, ‘South Asia and the Cold War’, in The Cold War in the Third World, ed. Robert S. MacMahon (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 67–84.
10 On this subject see Ira Chernus, Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2002); John Krige, ‘Atoms for Peace, Scientific Internationalism, and Scientific Intelligence’, Osiris 21, no. 1 (2006): 161–81; Mara Drogan, ‘The Nuclear Imperative: Atoms for Peace and the Development of U.S. Policy on Exporting Nuclear Power, 1953–1955’, Diplomatic History 40, no. 5 (2016): 948–74; Stephen Twigge, ‘The Atomic Marshall Plan: Atoms for Peace, British Diplomacy and Civil Nuclear Power’, Cold War History 16, no. 2 (2016): 213–30.
11 ‘Pakistan’s Progress in Nuclear Physics’, Dawn, November 9, 1953. On Chaudhry see bio notes reported in Khan, Eating Grass, 26–7.
12 Klaus Wille, The Physics of Particle Accelerators: An Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 1–7.
13 ‘Reuters News’, January 7, 1955; ‘Atoms for peace agreement initialled on 16 June 1955’, records created or inherited by the Dominions Office, and of the Commonwealth Relations and Foreign and Commonwealth Offices (hereafter DO) 35/8323, United Kingdom National Archives (hereafter NAUK), Kew Gardens.
14 ‘Crook to Walker’, January 13, 1955; ‘note by Cockcroft’, February 15, 1955; ‘Chaudhry to Cockcroft’, January 31, 1955, DO35/8323, NAUK.
15 ‘Ministry of Industries Resolution no. 20, 5 January 1955 establishing the Committee on Atomic Energy’, The Gazette of Pakistan, January 6, 1955; ‘Atomic Energy will Solve Pakistan’s Power Problem’, Dawn, June 8, 1955; ‘Energy Requirements of Pakistan’, in Proceedings of the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1955, vol. 1, The World’s Requirement for Energy: The Role of Nuclear Power (New York: UN, 1956), 216–38.
16 Cf. Daniel Oakman, Facing Asia: A History of the Colombo Plan (Canberra: ANU Press, 2010); Shigeru Akita et al., eds., The Transformation of the International Order of Asia: Decolonisation, the Cold War, and the Colombo Plan (London: Routledge, 2014).
17 ‘Crook to Bottomley’, April 18, 1955, DO35/8223, NAUK. Gerold Krozewsky, Money and the End of Empire: British International Economic Policy and the Colonies, 1947–1958 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), 65, 172.
18 Jerome Klassen, Joining Empire: The Political Economy of the New Canadian Foreign Policy (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2014).
19 Cranford Pratt, ed., Canadian International Development Assistance Policies: An Appraisal (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1994); David Morrison, Aid and Ebb Tide: A History of CIDA and Canadian Development Assistance (Waterloo: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 2011).
20 Brian Buckley, Canada’s Early Nuclear Policy: Fate, Chance, and Character (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2000).
21 Jill Campbell-Miller, ‘The Mind of Modernity: Canadian Bilateral Foreign Assistance to India, 1950–1960’ (Ph.D. diss., University of Waterloo, 2014); Ryan Touhey, Conflicting Visions: Canada and India in the Cold War World, 1946–1976 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2015); Robert Bothwell, Nucleus: The History of the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988), 349–58; Iris Lonergan, ‘The Negotiations between Canada and India for the Supply of the NRX Research Reactor 1955–1956’ (Ph.D. diss., Carleton University, 1989).
22 ‘Memo by Ritchie’, March 15, 1955; ‘memo for the Minister’, March 21, 1955, RG25 V7342 F11038-1-13-40 (1.1), Library and Archives Canada (hereafter LAC), Ottawa.
23 ‘New Delhi to DEA’, tel. 204, March 29, 1955, RG25 V4125 F14003-J2-3-40 (1), LAC. On Reid’s role see Greg Donaghy, ‘“Reasonably Well-Organized”: A History of Early Aid Administration’, in A Samaritan State Revisited: Historical Perspectives on Canadian Foreign Aid, ed. Greg Donaghy and David Webster (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2019), 53–72.
24 ‘DEA to Canadian Delegation to consultative committee of Colombo Plan Conference’, October 5, 1955; ‘Washington to DEA’, tel. 1726, October 13, 1955, RG25 V7342 F11038-1-13-40 (1.2), LAC. ‘Agreement on the Canada-India Colombo Plan Atomic Reactor Project’, April 28, 1956, RG25 V7343 F11038-1-13-40 (4.1), LAC.
25 ‘Meeting to discuss atomic energy and Colombo Plan held on 25 March 1955’, RG25 V4125 F14003-J2-3-40 (1), LAC.
26 ‘Note for the record’, July 6, 1956, DO35/8323, NAUK.
27 Vijay Sen Budhraj, ‘The Evolution of Russia’s Pakistan Policy’, Australian Journal of Politics & History 16, no. 3 (1970): 343–60.
28 ‘PK High Commissioner to DEA’, August 24, 1956; ‘Grandy to PK High Commissioner’, September 10, 1956; ‘DEA to PK High Commissioner’, August 5, 1958, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (1), LAC. ‘New Delhi to DEA’, tel. 535, April 29, 1957, RG25 V4125 F14003-J2-3-40 (1), LAC.
29 ‘Michaels to Allen’, November 9, 1956; ‘Thompson to Aston’, March 15, 1957; ‘Belgrave to Allen’, May 24, 1957; ‘James to Michaels’, August 6, 1957, DO35/8323, NAUK. ‘Memo for the Minister’, January 27, 1960; ‘Washington to DEA’, tel. 1119, April 28, 1960; ‘DEA to London’, ET-639, May 5, 1960, RG25 V4125 F14003-J2-3-40 (2), LAC.
30 Ahmad described the developing institutional framework in Nazir Ahmad, ‘The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission’, Pakistan Quarterly 7, no. 3 (1957): 14–17.
31 ‘Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of Pakistan for cooperation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy’, May 14, 1959, RG25 V4437 F14003-P2-1-40 (1), LAC.
32 ‘Extract from report on economic development in Pakistan during February 1959’; ‘Bryan to Reed’, June 22, 1959, DO35/8323, NAUK. ‘Note by Cockcroft’, March 16, 1960, DO35/8324, NAUK. ‘Memo by the High Commissioner in Karachi to DEA’, April 11, 1960, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (1), LAC. See also S.A. Hasnain, ‘Dr. I.H. Usmani and the Early Days of PAEC’, Nucleus 42, no. 1–2 (2005): 13–20.
33 Fayyazuddin Riazuddin, ‘Contribution of Prof. Abdus Salam as Member of PAEC’, Nucleus 42, no. 1–2 (2005): 31–4. On Salam see Brink, Duff, and Phua, eds., Memorial Volume on Abdus Salam’s 90th Birthday (Singapore: World Scientific, 2017); Mujahid Kamran, The Inspiring Life of Abdus Salam (Lahore: University of the Punjab Press, 2013); Gordon Fraser, Abdus Salam – The First Muslim Nobel Scientist (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Thomas Kibble, ‘Muhammad Abdus Salam, K.B.E.’, Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 44 (1998): 385–402. On Ayub Khan’s regime see Hamid Khan, Constitutional and Political History of Pakistan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2017), 121–60; Shuja Nawaz, Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2017), 170–91; Yasmin Saika, ‘Ayub Khan and Modern Islam. Transforming Citizens and the Nation in Pakistan’, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 37, no. 2 (2014): 292–305; Lawrence Ziring, The Ayub Khan Era: Politics in Pakistan 1958–1969 (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1971).
34 S. Akbar Zaidi, Issues in Pakistan’s Economy: A Political Economy Perspective (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2015), 117. Ian Talbot, Pakistan: A Modern History (London: Hurst, 1998), 169–72.
35 ‘Salam to Faruqui’, July 29, 1964, M13, ASP. ‘Creation of a Ministry of Science and Technology’, n.d., M14, ASP. ‘An outline of a national science policy for Pakistan’, October 30, 1969, M151, ASP.
36 Ilhan Niaz, The Culture of Power and Governance of Pakistan 1947–2008 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2010), 102–8.
37 Cf. Stuart Leslie, ‘Atomic Structures: The Architecture of Nuclear Nationalism in India and Pakistan’, History and Technology 31, no. 3 (2015): 220–42; Itty Abraham, ed., South Asian Cultures of the Bomb (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009).
38 Don Sprung, ‘Tribute to Martin Johns’, McMaster University – Department of Physics and Astronomy Newsletter (Winter 2008): 4, 6; ‘The Atomic Energy Commission of Pakistan and Canadian Aid’, n.d., DO182/48, NAUK.
39 ‘Allison to Lucas’, October 23, 1961, DO182/48, NAUK. ‘Note of a visit to Pakistan by Gray on January 28–2 February 1961’, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (1), LAC. ‘Greenwood to Hodson’, 12 August 1963, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (2), LAC. For Salam’s ideas see Pakistan and Technical Development, address delivered at the University of California March 1964 and Islam and Science, Concordance or Conflict, address delivered at a Meeting of the Organization ‘Islam and the West’, UNESCO House, Paris, April 27, 1984 both available at http://salam.ictp.it/salam/bibliography/speeches (accessed March 3, 2022).
40 The ratio of total output in a period to the designed capacity. This means that these generating units made sense if they could work almost always at high regime – a condition which required both a reasonably fault-free operation of the plants and a modern, interconnected electricity grid.
41 ‘World Digest – Pakistan’, Nuclear Engineering 6, no. 61 (1961): 227; ‘IAEA Working on Nuclear Power Costing’, Nucleonics 18, no. 5 (1960): 28; ‘Nuclear Power in Pakistan’, Nuclear Engineering 7, no. 71 (1962): 141–2. On IAEA activities and its relationship with Pakistan see Malfrid Braut-Hegghammer, ‘Pakistan, Uranium and the International Atomic Energy Agency, 1970–1980’, The International History Review 40, no. 5 (2017): 1034–48.
42 ‘Catchpole to Board of Trade’, May 19, 1961; ‘Sharp to Board of Trade’, 4 May, 1962, DO182/48, NAUK. Prospects of Nuclear Power in Pakistan, technical reports series no. 7 (Vienna: IAEA, 1962).
43 By extension, Magnox was the generic name of gas-cooled graphite moderated reactors used in the UK first nuclear power programme. This type, like the Canadian heavy water-moderated design, used natural uranium as fuel; instead, the US light-water reactors burnt slightly enriched uranium. Natural uranium reactors are plutonium breeders, so they pose a more serious risk in proliferation terms: such risk did materialise in the case of both India and Pakistan. Conversely, this reactor technology apparently offered an economic advantage in the fuel cycle – especially for a country with domestic uranium reserves – so producing electricity at competitive cost in big generating units. Moreover, natural uranium spared the user political and technological dependency on US enrichment services – a sensitive point for any former colony.
44 ‘Visit to UKAEA of Dr. Usmani on 8 March 1962’; ‘note for the file’, March 27, 1962; ‘note by Makins on visits to Pakistan, India, Japan and Washington’, n.d., DO182/48, NAUK. ‘Extract from minutes of AEX(62)7th meeting on 13 April 1962’, AB48/37, NAUK. ‘Cox to Jardine’, September 6, 1962, AB48/160, NAUK. ‘Cartwright to Webb’, May 16, 1962, AB65/97, NAUK.
45 ‘Note of a meeting with Eberts on 17 April 1962’; ‘note of a meeting with Dr. Usmani’, n.d.; ‘Usmani to Gray’, May 13, 1962; ‘Gray to Usmani’, 6 June, 1962; ‘Eberts to DEA’, June 22, 1962, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (1), LAC. ‘Agreement between the USSR and the Republic of India for scientific and technical cooperation in the field of peaceful utilization of atomic energy’, October 6, 1961, RG19 V4487 I39 1, LAC. ‘Soviet Bid to India Shuns Competition’, Nucleonics 18, no 4 (1960): 26.
46 G.F. Hoveke and J. DeFelice, ‘D2O-natural Uranium Reactor’, Nucleonics 17, no. 8 (1959): 63; Wilfrid B. Lewis, ‘Competitive Nuclear Power for Canada’, Nucleonics 18, no. 10 (1960): 54–9; Ruth Fawcett, Nuclear Pursuits: The Scientific Biography of Wilfrid Bennett Lewis (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1994), 84–97.
47 ‘Notes for the record, July 2 and 12, 1962’; ‘visit of Dr. Usmani to Risley on September 30–1 October 1962’, AB48/37, NAUK. ‘Cox to Jardine’, September 6, 1962; ‘note of a meeting held on 2 October 1962’; ‘Makins to Garner’, October 15, 1962, AB48/160, NAUK.
48 ‘McAdam Clark to Michaels’, May 14, 1963, AB48/37, NAUK. ‘Makins to Garner’, December 18, 1962, AB48/160, NAUK.
49 ‘Usmani to Haywood’, October 31, 1962; ‘Haywood to Usmani’, November 12, 1962; ‘memo by Watson’, November 22, 1962; ‘Gray to Moran’, July 8, 1963, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (2), LAC. Bothwell, Nucleus, 382–3; Bratt, CANDU Exports, 12–14, 104–5.
50 ‘Note of a meeting with Dr. Usmani on 13 December 1962’, AB48/160, NAUK.
51 ‘Olsen to Usmani’, June 3, 1963; ‘Harvey to Bryce’, August 14, 1963, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (2), LAC.
52 Most probably an intended press leak to exert pressure on the Americans – rather than the Canadians – while Bechtel Corp. was producing a feasibility report on the construction of a nuclear power station at Roopur, in East Pakistan. Indeed, after the United States cut its aid for Roopur, the Soviets were actively though unsuccessfully involved in the project. ‘Troke to Macklean’, April 2, 1963, AB65/98, NAUK. ‘Memorandum on the Roopur Nuclear Power Plant’, March 10, 1969, M147, ASP.
53 ‘Karachi to DEA’, letter no. 500, June 28, 1963, RG25 V4437 F14003-P2-1-40 (1), LAC. ‘Ritchie to Bryce’, July 18, 1963, RG19 V3869 F8342-P152-5-5-1 (1), LAC. ‘Nuclear Canada at a Glance’, Nucleonics 18, no. 10 (1960): 52–3.
54 ‘PAEC form on Kanupp’, May 6, 1963; ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 466, July 18, 1963, RG25 V4437 F14003-P2-1-40 (1), LAC. ‘Moran to Ritchie’, July 22, 1963, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (2), LAC.
55 ‘Usmani to Gray’, July 16, 1963; ‘Aitken to Stone’, August 14, 1963, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (2), LAC. ‘Aitken to Moran’, August 15, 1963; ‘memo by Aitken’, August 13, 1963, RG19 V5159 F8342 P152 5 1 1, LAC.
56 ‘Memo by Moran’, September 20, 1963, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (2), LAC.
57 Cf. David Engerman, ‘Development Politics and the Cold War’, Diplomatic History 41, no. 1 (2017): 1–19.
58 ‘Memo by Hockin’, August 12, 1963, RG19 V5159 F8342 P152 5 1 1, LAC; ‘Gray to Usmani’, July 22, 1963, RG25 V7884 F14003-P-2-3-40 (2), LAC; ‘Atomic energy advisory panel meeting held on 25 July 1963’, RG25 V7882 F14003 J2 3 40 (7), LAC; ‘Hand-written note by Read’, n.d., RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (1), LAC.
59 George Young, ‘Italy’s Nuclear Power Plant’, International Bank Notes 16, no. 4 (1962): 3–5. On the Garigliano project see Valentina della Gala, ‘The Nuclear Power Plant in Garigliano: A History of a State Business (1957–1964)’ (Ph.D. diss. University College of London, 2010); Barbara Curli, ‘Energia nucleare per il Mezzogiorno’, Studi storici 37, no 1 (1996): 317–51.
60 ‘Memo by Parkinson’, May 9, 1961; ‘memo by Reid’, March 27, 1962, RG19 V5289 F7979 I39 7 (1), LAC; ‘Plumptré to Gray’, March 27, 1962, RG20 V599 F3 51 1 (1), LAC.
61 ‘Burge to Reid’, March 23, 1966; ‘Reid to Burge’, March 25, 1966, RG19 V5290 F7979 I39 8 (2), LAC. Bruce Muirhead, ‘The Radical Banker: Escott Reid, the World Bank, and Aid to India, 1962–1965’, in Escott Reid: Diplomat and Scholar, ed. Greg Donaghy and Stéphane Roussel (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2004), 85–100.
62 ‘Memo by Reid’, June 30, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (5), LAC.
63 ‘Gray to Moran’, November 22, 1963; ‘memo by Plumptré’, December 5, 1963; ‘Bryce to Gray’, January 4, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (1), LAC.
64 Cf. Vyacheslav Belokrenitsky and Vladimir Moskalenko, A Political History of Pakistan 1947–2007 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 138–42, 188–93; Robert S. MacMahon, Cold War on the Periphery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996): 296–335.
65 Ryan Touhey, ‘“A One-Way Street”: The Limits of Canada’s Aid Relations with Pakistan 1958–1972’, in A Samaritan State Revisited, cit., Kindle ed. pos. 2340–66.
66 ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 845, December 21, 1963, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (1), LAC.
67 ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 51, January 20, 1964; ‘Moran to Bryce’, January 23, 1964; ‘Gray to Bryce’, January 24, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (1), LAC. Moran had consistently maintained that political, rather than commercial, consideration should govern Canadian aid policy. See John Hilliker and Donald Barry, Le ministère des Affaires extérieures du Canada, vol. II, L’essor, 1946−1968 (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2017), 172–3.
68 ‘Memo by Hollbach’, February 6, 1964; ‘Bryce to Cadieux’, March 18, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (1), LAC.
69 Pieter Lieftinck, ed., Water and Power Resources of West Pakistan: A Study in Sector Planning, vol. I, The Main Report (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968), 161–9.
70 ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 225, April 3, 1964; ‘note for the file’, May 28, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (2), LAC.
71 ‘Stoner to Plumptré’, May 14, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (2), LAC; ‘Memo by Martin’, July 9, 1964; ‘Pearson to Ayub Khan’, August 4, 1964; ‘memo by Wardroper’, August 7, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (5), LAC. ‘Memo by Hudon’, September 8, 1964; ‘meeting of ministers held on 6 October 1964’, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (6), LAC.
72 ‘Memo by Hollbach’, June 23, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (4), LAC.
73 ‘Usmani to Salam’ (in Urdu), November 4, 1964, M88, ASP.
74 Quoted in Mohammad Badrul Alam, India’s Nuclear Policy (Mittal Publications: New Delhi, 1988), 23.
75 ‘DEA to Karachi’, tel. 2591, December 31, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (6), LAC. ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 602, August 29, 1964, RG19 V5290 F7979 I39 7 (4), LAC. ‘Memo by Hollbach’, November 27, 1964, RG19 V4487 F7979 I39 1 (1), LAC. See also Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb, cit., 64–83.
76 ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 15, January 5, 1965, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (6), LAC. ‘Memo by Laurence’, June 20, 1963, RG19 V5290 F7979 I39 7 (3), LAC. ‘Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of India relating to the Rajasthan Atomic Power Station and the Douglas Point nuclear generating Station’, December 16, 1963; ‘agreement made on 16 December 1963 between AECL and the President of India, RG20 V1672 F3 51 1 (2), LAC.
77 ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 1, January 2, 1965, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (6), LAC.
78 ‘Reactions to China’s nuclear test’, May 19, 1965 at https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/134735 (accessed March 3, 2022).
79 ‘Pakistan’s Reaction to China’s Nuclear Explosion’, October 20, 1964 at https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/134754 (accessed March 3, 2022).
80 ‘Salam’s report on the visit to China’, March 1965, M201, ASP.
81 ‘Washington to DEA’, tel. 100, January 12, 1965; ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 36, January 13, 1965; ‘DEA to Karachi’, tel. 78, January 13, 1965; ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 45, January 18, 1965; ‘memo by Hudon’, January 20, 1965, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (6), LAC.
82 ‘DEA to Karachi’, tel. 350, February 13, 1965; ‘Wardroper to Brache’, February 16, 1965, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (6), LAC.
83 International Atomic Energy Agency, The Agency’s Safeguards System (1965), INFCIRC/66, December 3, 1965.
84 ‘DEA to Karachi’, tel. 2607, November 22, 1965, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (7), LAC. This is the context of the reported refusal by Ayub Khan to proliferate on the ground that – if needed – Pakistan could get the bomb ‘off the shelf’ (cf. Khan, Eating Grass, 62). PAEC documents indirectly confirm that talks on proliferation did take place, as it was decided that secret matters should not be put on record (‘minutes of 6th PAEC meeting’, December 30, 1966, M131, ASP). Since issues regarding the fuel cycle including reprocessing continued to be recorded at least until the end of 1973, it is very likely that the ‘secret matters’ were the kind of initiatives as reported by Feroz Khan.
85 ‘Minutes of the 16th meeting of PAEC’, August 2, 1969, M149, ASP.
86 ‘Delhi to DEA’, tel. 192, February 7, 1966; ‘Delhi to DEA’, tel. 897, May 13, 1966, RG19 V5290 F7979 I39 8 (2), LAC. ‘Delhi to DEA’, tel. 2737, December 15, 1966, RG19 V5290 F7979 I39 8 (3), LAC. See Touhey, ‘A One-Way Street’, pos. 2444–90.
87 ‘Trilateral agreement between Canada, Pakistan and the IAEA, working paper for the 17th meeting of PAEC on 30 October 1969’, M152, ASP. ‘Minutes of the 17th meeting of PAEC’, October 30, 1969, M153, ASP. International Atomic Energy Agency, Safeguards Transfer Agreement Relating to the Bilateral Agreement Between Pakistan and Canada, INFCIRC/135, November 13, 1969.
88 ‘Memo by Barry’, December 7, 1965; ‘record of Cabinet decisions – meeting of 8 December 1965’, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (7), LAC.
89 ‘Memo by the Foreign Secretary to the Cabinet’, December 6, 1965, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (7), LAC.
90 ‘Briefing note’, February 18, 1966, RG25 V10055 F20-1-2-PAK, LAC.
91 ‘Karachi to DEA’, tel. 1237, December 24, 1965, RG19 V3869 F8342 P152 5 5 1 (7), LAC.
92 ‘Minute of the 1st meeting of the PAEC’, August 28, 1965, M127, ASP. ‘Monthly progress report – December 1965, M96, ASP. ‘Reconstitution of nuclear safety committee’, November 1967, M136, ASP. ‘Review of projects and schemes, working paper for the 20th meeting of PAEC on 21 May 1970’, M157, ASP. ‘Minutes of the 31st meeting of PAEC held on 24 August 1973’, M165, ASP.
93 On this concept see Gabrielle Hecht, The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity after World War II (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000).
94 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, If I Am Assassinated (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing, 1979), 165–6.
95 ‘Bhutto to Pearson’, August 5, 1964, RG19 V3869 F8342-P152-5-5-1 (5), LAC; Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, The Myth of Independence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 120–30.
96 David Engerman, The Price of Aid: The Economic Cold War in India (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2018), 148–55.
97 Ayub’s uncertain command of simple technical terms is revealing. See Mohammad Ayub Khan, Friends Not Masters: A Political Autobiography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 173–4.
98 See Sara Lorenzini, Global Development: A Cold War History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019); Corinna Unger, International Development: A Post-War History (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2018)
99 World Bank in Pakistan: Review of a Relationship 1960–1984, vol. 1, The Results of the Relationship and Specific Development Priorities, Report No. 6048, January 27, 1986, access to Information Request no. AI7054, July 1, 2020.
100 Wilfrid B. Lewis, ‘World Possibilities for the Development and Use of Atomic Power’, Chalk River Director’s Report 1 (March 1947).
101 Ganeshan Venkataraman, Bhabha and His Magnificent Obsessions (Hyderguda: University Press, 1994), 5, 151–4.
102 Keith Spicer, A Samaritan State? External Aid in Canada’s Foreign Policy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967); Ian Smillie, ‘Foreign Aid and Canadian Purpose: Influence and Policy in Canada’s Development Assistance’, in Canada Among Nations 2008. 100 Years of Canadian Foreign Policy, ed. Robert Bothwell and Jean Daudelin (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2009), 183–208; Duane Bratt, The Politics of CANDU Exports (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006).
103 Cf. Rabia Akhtar, The Blind Eye: US Non-Proliferation Policy Towards Pakistan from Ford to Clinton (Lahore: University of Lahore Press, 2018).
104 See Ashok Kapur, Pakistan’s Nuclear Development (New York: Croom Helm, 1987): 77–81.
105 See Ryan Touhey, ‘Commonwealth Conundrums: Canada’s Foreign Relations with South Asia during the Pearson Era’ in Mike’s World: Lester Pearson and Canadian External Relations, 1963–1968, ed. Asa McKercher and Galen Perras (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2017), 251–76.