Rethinking the security issue in the China-Burma territorial dispute

ABSTRACT

This article challenges the dominant friendship-oriented scholarship on the China-Burma border in China and revisits the nature of China’s compromise with Burma in the territorial disputes between 1956 and 1960. Multi-archival and multi-lingual primary sources including official archives and memoirs from Burma, China, the United States and the United Kingdom, are extensively used. In particular, Chinese local archives are used for the first time to demonstrate a new picture of the CCP’s decision-making process in formulating policies of territorial compromise with Burma. Beijing was willing to offer concessions to Burma in the border dispute to improve its own national security because of the security vacuum in the China-Burma border region, Burma’s commitments to China, and the area’s critical geopolitical value.

KEYWORDS:

• China
• Burma
• territorial dispute
• security

Acknowledgements

My great thanks for the help and support of my wife, as well as to the anonymous reviewers for their comments.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Notes

¹ Taylor Fravel, Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Confliction in China’s Territorial Disputes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 54–8.

² Ibid.

³ Nicholas Tarling, Neutrality in Southeast Asia: Concepts and Contests (London and New York: Routledge, 2017), 82–91.

⁴ Taylor Fravel, ‘Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China’s Compromises in Territorial Disputes’, International Security 30, no. 2 (2005): 46–83.

⁵ Eric Hyer, The Pragmatic Dragon: China’s Grand Strategy and Boundary Settlements (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2015), 79–82.

⁶ Brendan Whyte, ‘The Sino-Myanmar Border’, in Beijing’s Power and China’s Borders: Twenty Neighbours in Asia, ed. Bruce A. Elleman, Stephen Kotkin, and Clive Schofield (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2013), 198.

⁷ Maung Aung Myoe, In the Name of Pauk-Phaw: Myanmar’s China Policy Since 1948 (Singapore: ISEAS, 2011), 40–51.

⁸ David I. Steinberg and Hongwei Fan, Modern China-Myanmar Relations: Dilemmas of Mutual Dependence (Copenhagen: NIAS Press, 2012), 55–68.

⁹ Liao Xinwen, ‘解决边界问题的典范──周恩来与中缅边界谈判’ [A model for resolving the border issue: Zhou Enlai and China-Burma territorial negotiations], Literature of Chinese Communist Party, no. 4 (1996): 66–70; Zhao Lei, ‘中印、中缅边界问题比较研究’ [Comparative study on the boundary issue between China, India and Burma], Journal of Social Science of Hunan Normal University, no. 2 (1995): 72–8; Feng Yue and Qi Pengfei, ‘中缅边界谈判略述’ [Generalisation of China Burma territorial negotiation], Journal of Hunan University of Science & Technology (Social Science Edition), no. 6 (2006): 59; Wang Shanzhong, ‘论述<中华人民共和国和缅甸联邦边界条约’ [Discussion of border treaty between the People’s Republic of China and the union Burma], China’s Borderland History and Geography Studies, no. 1 (1997): 83–4.

¹⁰ Fan Hongwei, ‘中缅边界问题的解决:过程与影响’ [The settlement of China-Burma border dispute: course and impact], Southeast Asian Affairs, no. 3 (2010): 36–45; Feng Yue, ‘中缅边界问题解决的历史过程 (1954–1961)’ [Historical process of settling the Sino- Burma boundary issue, 1954–1961], Southeast Asian Affairs, no. 3 (2014): 23–39; Guan Peifeng, ‘缅边界谈判研究’ [Study on the Sino-Burmese boundary negotiation], Historical Review, no. 1 (2014): 163–8.

¹¹ Dai Chaowu, ‘中缅边界问题与尼赫鲁的干预及其战略意图(1956–1960)’ [Nehru’s strategic goal to intervene in China-Burma boundary issues, 1956–1960], CPC History Studies, no. 11 (2016): 53–69; Guan Peifeng, ‘1959’ 年中印边界冲突对中缅边界谈判的影响 [The influence of Sino-Indian border conflict in 1959 to Sino-Burmese border negotiations], Contemporary China History Studies, no. 1 (2014): 99–128.

¹² Qi Pengfei, ‘关于中缅边界谈判中的’麦克马洪线’问题之再认识’ [Revisit the “McMahon Line” in Sino- Burma border negotiations], South Asian Studies, no. 1 (2014): 31–56; Qi Pengfei and Zhang Mingxia, ‘中缅边界谈判的历程及其基本经验’ [The history and basic experiences of China- Burma border negotiations], CPC History Studies, no. 1 (2012): 55–65.

¹³ Fan, ‘中缅边界问题的解决’, 43.

¹⁴ Shen Zhihua, ‘冷战年代中国处理陆地边界纠纷的方针’ [China’s approach to dealing with land border disputes during the cold war], 21^st Century, no. 3 (2014): 21–32; Shen Zhihua, 事与愿违: 冷战年代中国处理陆地边界纠纷的结果 [Counterproductive: the result of China’s handling of land border disputes during the cold war], 21^st Century, no. 4 (2014): 52–61.

¹⁵ Thomas E. McGrath, ‘A Warlord Frontier: The Yunnan-Burma Border Dispute, 1910–1937’, in OAH Proceedings (Ohio: The Ohio Academy of History, 2003), 10.

¹⁶ Wang Tieya, 中外旧约章汇编 [Collection of old treaties between China and Foreign countries] (Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company, 1957), 485.

¹⁷ Ibid., 575–8.

¹⁸ Zhu Zhaohua, ‘北京政府时期中缅边界问题交涉’ [The negotiations on the Sino- Burma border issue during the period of Beiyang Government], Yunnan Social Sciences, no. 6 (2008): 136.

¹⁹ Wang Yanwei and Wang Liang, 清季外交史料,第4册 [Historical materials on foreign relations in the late Qing] (Taipei: Wenhai Publishing House, 1985), 1556.

²⁰ Yang Kecheng, 我对中缅划界工作的回忆 [My recollections on the demarcation of China and Burma], Selected Works of Yunnan Literature and History, 56^th (Kunming: Yunnan People’s Publishing House, 2000), 283.

²¹ ‘Burma/China Frontier’, 13 January 1955, FO-371-117,042, The National Archive of United Kingdom.

²² Yao Zhongming, ‘忆周恩来同志我深感受教育’ [Recalling comrade Zhou Enlai who strongly inspired me], in Old Diplomats Recall Zhou Enlai, ed. Tian Zengpei and Wang Taiping (Beijing: World Knowledge Publishing House, 1998), 239.

²³ Cheng Ruisheng, ‘中缅边界谈判亲历记’ [My personal experience in China-Burma border negotiations], CCP History Material, no. 4 (2004): 97.

²⁴ 关于中缅之间未决问题的处理意见 (第四稿) [Disposal on the issues of unresolved issues between China and Burma (Fourth Draft)], 14 July 1956, 105–00448-04 (1), Chinese Foreign Ministry Archives.

²⁵ 中缅北段未定界　缅擅自划归已境 [Burma unilaterally incorporated some undemarcated parts along the Northern China-Burma border into Burmese territory], Shen Daily, 9 October 1948.

²⁶ 中缅北段未定界密支那竟设学校 [Burma actually set up a school in undemarcated area of Myitkyina], Shen Daily, 12 November 1948.

²⁷ 周恩来总理会见缅甸驻华大使吴拉茂谈话纪要 [Summary of discussion between premier Zhou Enlai and Burmese ambassador to China Uhla Maung], 25 August 1958, 105–00307-03 (1), Chinese Foreign Ministry Archives.

²⁸ 中国、缅甸边境双方军队发生枪击事缅方致我照会 [Burmese note to China relating to talks on the shooting incident in Sino-Burmese border areas], 27 January 1956, 105–00745-01 (1), Chinese Foreign Ministry Archives.

²⁹ ‘To Thakin Nu’, 30 December 1950, in Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Second Series, Vol. 15, Part II (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994), 546.

³⁰ ‘Map of Burma as-prepared by Chinese’, National Archives of Myanmar, no. 10: 15–3.

³¹ A skirmish between the Burmese Tatmadaw and PLA occurred at yellow orchard to the west of ‘1941 line’. For the causalities on both sides in the conflict, see U Nu, U Nu, Saturday’s Son (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1975), 253.

³² Steinberg and Fan, Modern China-Myanmar Relations, 58–9.

³³ ‘Burmese Note to China relating to Talks on the Shooting Incident in Sino-Burmese Border Areas’, 105–00745-01(1), Chinese Foreign Ministry Archives.

³⁴ ‘Intelligence Report No. 7330 Chinese Communist Penetration of Burma’s Disputed Frontiers Prepared by Division of Research for Far East’, 26 August 1956, FO-371-123, 322, The National Archive of United Kingdom; ‘Outward Telegram from Commonwealth Relations Office’, 7 September 1956, FO-371-123, 320, The National Archive of United Kingdom.

³⁵ ‘From Bangkok to Foreign Office’, 9 October 1956, FO-371-123,321, The National Archive of United Kingdom.

³⁶ Zhuo Renzheng, 殷殷胞波情: 1956年中缅边民大联欢 [Cordial ‘Pauk Phaw’: a grand gathering of Chinese and Burmese residents in border areas between China and Burma in 1956] (Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2003), 119.

³⁷ Dai, ‘The Sino-Burma Border Issue and Nehru’s Intervention and its Strategic Intent’, 57.

³⁸ Cheng, ‘中缅边界谈判亲历记’, 100–1.

³⁹ ‘Memorandum of Conversation’ 10 January 1958, RG 59, General Records of Department of State, Files Relating to Burma and Thailand, 1956–59, Box 18, National Archive II, College Park, MD.

⁴⁰ ‘Speech Broadcast by U Nu, President of the AFPFL on Saturday 10 November 1956, Regarding the Burma-China Boundary’, 12–14-281, National Archives of Myanmar.

⁴¹ 中缅双方发表联合新闻公报 [Joint press communique of Burma and China], People’s Daily, 10 November 1956.

⁴² ‘From Bangkok to Foreign Office’.

⁴³ 关于中缅边界问题的报告 [Report on the Sino-Bruma border issue], People’s Daily, 10 July 1957.

⁴⁴ ‘Speech Broadcast by U Nu’.

⁴⁵ ‘Memorandum of Conversation’, 18 September 1957, RG 59, General Records of Department of State, 1955–1959, Central Decimal File, Box 3850, National Archive II.

⁴⁶ ‘Memorandum from AmEmbassy Rangoon to the Department of State’, 8 February 1958, RG 84, Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, Burma, U.S. Embassy, Classified General Records, 1945–1961, Box 24, National Archive II.

⁴⁷ ‘The China-Burma Frontier’, 2 January 1957, FO-371-129,407, The National Archive of United Kingdom.

⁴⁸ Steinberg and Fan, Modern China-Myanmar Relations, 62–3.

⁴⁹ Yang, 我对中缅划界工作的回忆, 288.

⁵⁰ Ibid., 281–2.

⁵¹ ‘中共中央关于中缅边界问题的宣传通知’ [Notice of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Sino-Burma border issue], 21 September 1957, 0003–002-46-100, Zhangzhou Archives.

⁵² Fravel, ‘Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation’, 53.

⁵³ ‘中共中央关于中缅边界问题的宣传通知’.

⁵⁴ ‘毛泽东年谱 (1949–1976)第一卷’ [Chronicle of Mao Zedong: 1949–1976] (Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2013), 230.

⁵⁵ ‘Memorandum of Conversation’, 18 September 1957.

⁵⁶ ‘外交部耿飚副部长视察中国、缅甸边境情况’ [Deputy minister of foreign affairs inspects the border between China and Burma], 105–00677-04 (1), Chinese Foreign Ministry Archives.

⁵⁷ ‘Record of Chairman Mao Zedong’s talk with visiting Burmese Vice Prime Ministers, U Ba Swe and U Kyaw Nyein’, 105–00339-01(1), Chinese Foreign Ministry Archives.

⁵⁸ ‘吴努总理在临别宴会上的讲话’ [The speech of Prime Minister U Nu at the parting banquet], Xinhua Monthly, no. 1 (1955): 97.

⁵⁹ ‘热烈庆祝中缅边界条约的签订’ [Warmly celebrating the signing of the Sino-Burma border treaty], People’s Daily, 2 October 1960.

⁶⁰ 周恩来年谱 (1949–1976) 中卷 [Chronicle of Zhou Enlai: 1949–1976] (Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 1997), 26.

⁶¹ ‘中共中央关于中缅边界问题的宣传通知’.

⁶² William A. Callahan, ‘National Insecurities: Humiliation, Salvation, and Chinese Nationalism’, Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 29, no. 2 (2004): 203–4.

⁶³ ‘亚洲国家和平共处的范例’ [An example of peaceful coexistence in Asia], People’s Daily, 3 August 1960.

⁶⁴ 周恩来年谱 (1949–1976) 中卷, 26.

⁶⁵ ‘中共中央关于中缅边界问题的宣传通知’.

⁶⁶ Ibid.

⁶⁷ ‘在中缅边界条约签字仪式上周恩来总理的讲话’ [Premier Zhou Enlai’s speech at the signing ceremony of the Sino-Burmese border treaty], People’s Daily, 2 October 1960.

⁶⁸ ‘在中缅边界条约签字仪式上吴努总理的讲话’ [Speech by Prime Minister U Nu at the signing ceremony of the China-Burma border treaty], People Daily, 2 October 1960; Ibid.

⁶⁹ ‘Telegram from Office of H.B.M. Charge d’ Affaires, Peking’, 18 October 1960, FO-371-152, 258, The National Archive of United Kingdom.

⁷⁰ ‘中共中央关于中缅边界问题的宣传通知’. The Anti-Rightist Campaign was a campaign to purge alleged ‘Rightist’ intellectuals in China between 1957 and 1959. During the political movement, around 50,500 intellectuals were persecuted.

⁷¹ Marcelo G. Kohen and Mamadou Hébié, Research Handbook on Territorial Disputes in International Law (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2018), 438.

Additional information

Funding

This article is funded by the research grant of Shenzhen University – Lingnan University Joint Centre for the Greater Bay Area and International Studies (CGIS), as well as the Humanities and Social Sciences Project of the Chinese Ministry of Education [18JJD770002].