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ABSTRACT
During the Afghan War, the Mujahideen claimed that the Afghan communists were atheists who were subservient to Moscow and did not have the legitimacy to rule Afghanistan. The war became a contest for legitimacy in Afghanistan and internationally. The Soviets and the Afghan communists portrayed communist Afghanistan as Islamic and therefore legitimate in the international arena. The Soviets elaborated an information campaign emphasising Islam and strengthened Afghanistan’s contacts with Muslim countries to show that the Afghan communists were Muslims too. They hoped international recognition would reduce Muslim countries’ support to the Mujahideen and improve the Afghan communists’ acceptance at home.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 The PDPA publicly avoided the label ‘communist’ so as not to appear subordinate to Moscow. The Afghans and the Soviets, however, widely used the term in private.
2 Rodric Braithwaite, Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan 1979–89 (London: Oxford University Press, 2013), 331.
3 ‘Laik’, Afghanistan.ru, 11 May 2016, https://afghanistan.ru/doc/97630.html accessed 14 July 2022.
4 Vassily Klimentov, ‘“Communist Muslims”: The USSR and the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan’s Conversion to Islam, 1978–1988’, Journal of Cold War Studies 24, no. 1 (2022): 4–38; and Barnett R. Rubin, The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International System (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 165–6.
5 Cemil Aydin, The Idea of the Muslim World: A Global Intellectual History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), 173–226.
6 On religion in the Cold War: Philip E. Muehlenbeck, ed., Religion and the Cold War: A Global Perspective (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2012).
7 The PDPA renamed Afghanistan the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in 1978. The country was renamed the Republic of Afghanistan in 1987. I am keeping the acronym DRA throughout the article.
8 Brandan P. Buck, ‘Brokering a Buffer State: Afghan Neutrality and American Diplomacy, 1973–1979’, The International History Review 41, no. 3 (2019): 493–512; Robert D. Crews, Afghan Modern: The History of a Global Nation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015); Nile Green, Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017); Timothy Nunan, Humanitarian Invasion: Global Development in Cold War Afghanistan (London: Cambridge University Press, 2016); Yaacov Ro’i, ed., The USSR and the Muslim World (London: Routledge, 2016 [1984]); Olivier Roy, Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan (London: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Rubin, Fragmentation, 165–6; and Eren Tasar, Soviet and Muslim: The Institutionalization of Islam in Central Asia (London: Oxford University Press, 2017), 242–97.
9 Karen Brutents, Tridtsat’ let na staroi ploshschadi (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniya, 1998), Part IV, Ch l; David Gai and Vladimir Snegirev, Vtorzhenie (Moscow: SP IKPA, 1991); Fred Halliday and Zahir Tanin, ‘The Communist Regime in Afghanistan 1978–1992: Institutions and Conflicts’, Europe-Asia Studies 50, no. 8 (1998): 1357–80; Artemy M. Kalinovsky, A Long Goodbye: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 81–98, 200–4; Alexander Lyakhovsky, Tragediya i Doblest’ Afgana (Moscow: GPI Iskona, 1995); and Vladimir Plastun, Iznanka Afganskoi Voiny (Moscow: IV RAN, 2016), 307, 317.
10 Thomas Barfield, Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 80–1. On Afghan legitimacy: David B. Edwards, Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2002); and William Malley, ‘Political Legitimation in Contemporary Afghanistan’, Asian Survey 27, no. 6 (1987): 705–25.
11 Keith Tribe, ed., Max Weber: Economy and Society, A New Translation (London: Harvard University Press, 2019), 338–43.
12 Mikhail Slinkin, Afganskie stranitsy istorii (Simferopol: TGU, 2003), 12, 26–7.
13 Ibid., 19; Klimentov, ‘Communist’, 20–6.
14 Samuel Helfont, Compulsion in Religion: Saddam Hussein, Islam, and the Roots of Insurgencies in Iraq (London: Oxford University Press, 2018).
15 Fred Halliday, ‘“Islam” and Soviet Foreign Policy’, Journal of Communist Studies 3, no. 1 (1987): 217–33.
16 Brutents, Tridtsat’, Part IV, Ch. 3; and Yevgeny Primakov, Konfidentsial’no (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2016), 51.
17 Elisabeth Leake, ‘Afghan Internationalism and the Question of Afghanistan’s Political Legitimacy’, Afghanistan 1, no. 1 (2018): 68–94; and Crews, Modern, 173–228.
18 US DoS Telegram, Kabul, 3 August 1978, (College Park, MD: National Archives (NA)), https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=216841&dt=2694&dl=2009 accessed 14 July 2022.
19 Anatoly Chernyaev, The Diary of Anatoly Chernyaev (Washington, DC: National Security Archive (NSA), 2003), 9 March 1981; and Vasiliy Mitrokhin, The KGB in Afghanistan (Washington DC: Wilson Center (WC), 2002), 105–6.
20 United Nations (UN), Resolution (R) 35/37, 20 November 1980, https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/35/37; https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/629402?ln=en accessed 14 July 2022.
21 Robert O. Freedman, Moscow and the Middle East: Soviet Policy since the Invasion of Afghanistan (London: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 318–20.
22 UN, R36/34, 18 November 1981, https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/36/34; https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/626815?ln=en accessed 14 July 2022.
23 ‘Ob obostrenii’, 17 March 1979, fond (f.) 89, opis’ (op.) 25, delo (d.) 1, list (l.) 1–25, Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Noveishei Istorii (Moscow, Russia: RGANI).
24 Andrey Grachev, Interview by author, Moscow, September 2019.
25 ‘Meeting’, 4 January 1980, WC, f. 89, o. 14, d. 36, RGANI https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/117050 accessed 14 July 2022.
26 Slinkin, Stranitsy, 26–7.
27 Anatoly Adamishin, Interview by author, Moscow, August 2019.
28 ‘Telegrafnoe Agentstvo Sovetskogo Soyuza. Afganistan (TASSA)’, 24 January 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22314, l. 2, Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, Russia: GARF).
29 Aydin, Muslim, 214.
30 Lyakhovsky, Tragediya, 171–3.
31 US DoS Telegram, Washington DC, 3 April 1979, (College Park, MD: National Archives (NA)), https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=21655&dt=2776&dl=2169 accessed 14 July 2022.
32 US DoS Telegram, Cairo, 31 December 1979, NA, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=71064&dt=2776&dl=2169 accessed 14 July 2022.
33 Mohammad Yousaf and Mark Adkin, Afghanistan – The Bear Trap (Barnsley: Leo Cooper, 2001), 26.
34 E. Primakov, ed., Polozhenie (Oriental Studies Institute, May 1981), 11–12, NSA, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//rus/text_files/BrezhnevEpoch/1981.05.00%20Analysis%20of%20Pushtu%20Tribes%20in%20Afghanistan.pdf accessed 14 July 2022.
35 ‘Politburo’, 28 January 1980, WC, f. 89, o. 34, d. 3, RGANI https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111585 accessed 14 July 2022.
36 ‘Meeting’, 4 January 1980.
37 ‘Briefing’, 1980, WC, M-KS 288f. 11, (Budapest, Hungary: National Archives of Hungary), https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112499 accessed 14 July 2022.
38 ‘Sekretariat’, f. 4, o. 44, d. 26, ll. 24–30, 119–20, 157–9, RGANI.
39 See note and for 1984–87: ‘Otchety Agentstva pechati “Novosti” (APN) v Afganistane’, January–December 1984, f. R9587, o. 4, d. 90, GARF; Ibid., January–June 1985, Ibid., d. 242; Ibid., July–December 1985, Ibid., d. 243; Ibid., January–December 1986, Ibid., d. 417; Ibid., January–June 1987, Ibid., d. 603; Ibid., July–December 1987, Ibid., d. 604.
40 Grachev, Interview. On national reconciliation: Kalinovsky, Goodbyes, 93–121; Klimentov, ‘Communist’, 27–37; and Lyakhovsky, Tragediya, 325–42.
41 Y. Volkov et al., The Truth about Afghanistan (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, 1980), 57–8.
42 Ibid., 59–62.
43 ‘TASS SSSR-Iran. Afganistan (TASSSIA)’, 16 March 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22933, l. 56. GARF.
44 Vasiliy Mitrokhin, ‘KGB Active Measures’, April 2004, WC, https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/110013 accessed 14 July 2022; Mitrokhin, KGB, 140, 150.
45 ‘TASSA’, 21 January 1986, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 7565, l. 239, GARF.
46 ‘TASSA’, 31 January 1986, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 7566, l. 45, GARF.
47 ‘SMI DRA’, January–June 1987, f. R9587, o. 4, d. 603, l. 89–94; l. 116, GARF; and ‘Spravka’, August 1987, f. 9587, o. 4, d. 604, l. 16, GARF.
48 Khadamat-e Aetela’at-e Dawlati (KhAD) Head of Department, Interview by author, Moscow, February 2019; Slinkin, Stranitsy, 95–6.
49 Meeting’, 4 January 1980.
50 Ibid. The Kremlin gave these instructions to its diplomats in Beijing but one can assume that other diplomats received similar ones.
51 Mitrokhin, KGB, 105–6.
52 ‘TASSA’, 26 September 1982, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 1617, l. 278, GARF; ‘TASSA’, 28 April 1983, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 3112, l. 164, GARF.
53 Brutents, Tridtsat’, Part IV, Ch. 3.
54 ‘TASSA’, 13 May 1985, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 6177, l. 93, GARF; ‘TASSA’, 7 January 1987, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 8837, l. 145, GARF; ‘TASSA’, 11 November 1985, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 6180, l. 170, GARF; ‘TASSA’, 24 February 1986, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 7566, l. 268, GARF; ‘TASSA’, 3 January 1987, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 8837, l. 63, GARF; and ‘TASSA’, 6 June 1987, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 8841, l. 219, GARF.
55 ’TASSA’, 26 May 1985, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 6177, l. 162, GARF; ‘TASSA’, 10 December 1987, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 8845, l. 32, GARF.
56 ‘TASSA’, 12 November 1985, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 6180, l. 181, GARF.
57 Galia Golan, Soviet Policies in the Middle East from World War Two to Gorbachev (London: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 155.
58 ‘Dokumenty’, 28 August 1986, f. R6991, o. 6, d. 3376, ll. 137–8, GARF.
59 ‘Zapis’, 20 July 1987, (Moscow, Russia: Gorbachev Foundation (GF), NSA), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//rus/text_files/Afganistan/1987.07.20.Gorbachev-Najibullah.pdf accessed 14 July 2022.
60 Vasilii Khristoforov, Afganistan (Moscow: Granitsa, 2009), 120–1.
61 ‘Dopolnitel’nykh’, 13 May 1989, f. 89, o. 10, d. 35, l. 1–4, RGANI; and Plastun, Iznanka, 539, 595.
62 Ramazan Daurov, ed., Dnevnikovye Zapisi M.F. Slinkina (Moscow: IV RAN, 2016), 14–15.
63 Melvin A. Goodman and Carolyn McGiffert Ekedahl, ‘Gorbachev’s “New Directions” in the Middle East’, Middle East Journal 42, no. 4 (1988): 579.
64 Samuel Helfont, ‘Islam in Saudi Foreign Policy: The Case of Maʿruf al-Dawalibi’, The International History Review 42, no. 3 (2020): 449–64.
65 ‘TASSA’, 24 July 1981, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 84, l. 163, GARF.
66 ‘TASSA’, 20 November 1984, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 4574, l. 169–70, GARF.
67 ‘TASSA’, 11 January 1986, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 7565, l. 41, 110–11, GARF; Malley, ‘Legitimacy’, 719.
68 ‘TASSA’, 5 December 1985, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 6181, l. 40, GARF.
69 Yaacov Ro’i, Islam in the Soviet Union, From the Second World War to Gorbachev (London: Hurst, 2000), 589; Tasar, Soviet, 242–98; and Eren Tasar, ‘The Central Asian Muftiate in Occupied Afghanistan, 1979–87’, Central Asian Survey 30, no. 2 (2011): 213–26.
70 Fred Halliday, ‘“Islam” and Soviet Foreign Policy’, Journal of Communist Studies 3, no. 1 (March 1987): 218.
71 L. Shershnev and V. Granitov, eds., Islam v Sovremennom Afganistane (Tashkent: PA KTVO, 1982).
72 Roman Silantyev, ‘Mezhdunarodnaya deyatel’nost’ dukhovnykh upravlenii musul’man SSSR’, Vlast’ 22, no. 3 (2014): 154–6.
73 ‘Dokumenty’, 22 May 1986, f. R6991, o. 6, d. 3377, GARF.
74 ‘Dokumenty’, 28 August 1986, ll. 137–8.
75 Klimentov, ‘Communist’, 18–19.
76 Lyakhovsky, Tragediya, 121; and on Iranian-Soviet relations: Clément Therme, Les relations entre Téhéran et Moscou depuis 1979 (Paris: PUF, 2012), 89–118.
77 Grachev, Interview.
78 KHAD Head of Department, Interview.
79 ‘TASSA’, 13 January 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22311, l. 271–76, GARF.
80 ‘TASSA’, 21 January 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22313, l. 159, GARF.
81 ‘Laik’, Afghanistan.ru.
82 ‘TASSA’, 28 January 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22314, l. 245, GARF.
83 M. Danesch and D. Wild, ‘Ist das die europäische Kultur?’ Spiegel, 30 June 1980, https://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-14328441.html accessed 14 July 2022.
84 Slinkin, Stranitsy, 19.
85 ‘TASSA’, 24 March 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22319, l. 168, GARF.
86 Freedman, Moscow, 126–8.
87 ‘TASSA’, 7 February 1981, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 80, l. 100, GARF.
88 Freedman, Moscow, 99; and ‘Protokol’, 20 February 1981, f. 2, o. 6, d. 281, l. 11, RGANI.
89 ‘TASSA’, 26 January 1982, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 1614, l. 110, GARF.
90 Abdul Wakil, ‘Iran’s Relations with Afghanistan after the Islamic Revolution’, Orient 32, no. 1 (1991): 102, 112.
91 Halliday, ‘“Islam”’, 221.
92 James Clay Moltz and Dennis B. Ross, ‘The Soviet Union and the Iran-Iraq War, 1980–88’, in Soviet Strategy in the Middle East, ed. George W. Breslauer (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990), 133–7; and Wakil, ‘Iran’, 102, 108.
93 ‘TASSA’, 25 July 1983, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 3113, l. 192, GARF.
94 ‘TASSA’, 25 December 1984, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 4575, l. 71–2, GARF.
95 ‘TASSA’, 10 April 1985, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 6176, l. 189, GARF.
96 Afghan Information Center, Monthly Bulletin, No. 39; and Wakil, ‘Iran’, 108.
97 ‘Stenogramma’, 22 February 1988, f. 10003, GARF; O. 1, d. 248 (?), NSA, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//rus/text_files/Afganistan/1988.02.22.Yakovlev-CC-CPSU-Conference-on-Afganistan.pdf accessed 14 July 2022; and Grachev, Interview.
98 Kalinovsky, Goodbye, 193.
99 Wakil, ‘Iran’, 108, 115.
100 KHAD Head of Department, Interview.
101 ‘TASSA’, 20 February 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22316, l. 229, GARF.
102 ‘TASSSIA’, 16 February 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22931, ll. 214–15, GARF.
103 ‘TASSA’, 15 January 1982, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 1615, l. 316, GARF.
104 ‘TASSA’, 26 October 1982, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 1618, l. 88, GARF; and ‘TASSA’, 18 September 1984, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 4573, l. 142, GARF.
105 Roland Dannreuther, The Soviet Union and the PLO (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), 105–7.
106 Ibid., 110–12.
107 ‘TASSA’, 22 January 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22313, 180–2, GARF.
108 ‘TASSA’, 29 March 1981, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 82, l. 16–17, GARF.
109 ‘TASSA’, 20 August 1981, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 84, l. 347, GARF.
110 Dannreuther, PLO, 110.
111 ‘TASSA’, 4 May 1983, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 3112, l. 189, GARF.
112 ‘TASSA’, 27 June 1984, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 4572, l. 78, GARF.
113 ‘TASSA’, 17 July 1986, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 7570, l. 140, GARF.
114 Slinkin, Stranitsy, 46.
115 Jamiat-e Islami, AFGHANews 5, no. 13, 1 July 1989, 1–3.
116 ‘Mujahideen’, Southeast Asian & Afghanistan Review 9, no. 15 (June 1989): 5.
117 Mikhaïl Slinkin, ‘Afganistan: uroki informatsionnoi voiny’, Kul’tura narodov Prichernomor’ya 15 (2000): 89, 94.
118 Turan Kayaoglu, The Organization of Islamic Cooperation: Politics, Problems and Potential (New York: Routledge, 2015), 6.
119 Aydin, Muslim, 211.
120 Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada, ‘Pakistan and the OIC’, Pakistan Horizon, 40, no. 2 (1987): 25.
121 ‘TASSA’, 8 April 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22320, l. 88, GARF.
122 Khristoforov, Afganistan, 148.
123 ‘TASSA’, 29 May 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22322, l. 88, GARF.
124 Wakil, ‘Iran’, 107.
125 Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), R19/11-P, May 17–22, 1980, http://ww1.oic-oci.org/english/conf/fm/11/11%20icfm-political-en.htm#RESOLUTION%20No.%2019/11-P accessed 14 July 2022.
126 Freedman, Moscow, 75.
127 ‘TASSA’, 25 May 1980, f. R4459, o. 43, d. 22322, l. 180, GARF.
128 ‘TASSA’, 23 May 1980, Ibid., l. 158, GARF.
129 ‘TASSA’, 18 January 1981, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 79, l. 172–5, GARF.
130 OIC, R3/3-P (IS), 25–8 January 1981, http://ww1.oic-oci.org/english/conf/is/3/3rd-is-sum(political).htm accessed 14 July 2022.
131 Ibid.
132 Diego Cordovez and Selig S. Harrison, Out of Afghanistan: The Inside Story of the Soviet Withdrawal (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 64.
133 ‘TASSA’, 30 January 1981, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 80, l. 31, GARF.
134 ‘TASSA’, 28 January 1981, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 79, l. 253, GARF.
135 ‘TASSA’, 7 June 1981, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 83, l. 113, GARF.
136 ‘Relations’, 10 June 1981, US Embassy, Afghanistan, NSA, www.proquest.com accessed 14 July 2022.
137 OIC, R9/4-P (IS), 16–19 January 1984, http://ww1.oic-oci.org/english/conf/is/4/4th-is-sum(political).htm#09 accessed 14 July 2022.
138 ‘TASSA’, 23 January 1984, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 4570, l. 73, GARF.
139 ‘TASSA’, 14 May 1984, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 4571, l. 184, GARF.
140 Klimentov, ‘Communist’, 9.
141 Pirzada, ‘Pakistan’, 35.
142 Steve Coll, Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan and Bin Laden, Kindle (New York: Penguin, 2005), Loc. 451–3585.
143 ‘TASSA’, 11 December 1985, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 6181, l. 72, GARF.
144 OIC, R19/16-P, 6–10 January 1986, http://ww1.oic-oci.org/english/conf/fm/16/16%20icfm-political-en.htm#RESOLUTION%20NO:%2019/16-P accessed 14 July 2022.
145 Tasar, Soviet, 284–5.
146 Jamiat-e Islami, AFGHANews 2, no. 2, 19 January 1986, 3.
147 Silantyev, ‘Deyatel’nost’, 154–6; ‘TASSA’, 5 December 1986, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 7573, l. 85, GARF.
148 Slinkin, Stranitsy, 44–5.
149 ‘Hearing’, 17 February 1987, US Congress, NSA, www.proquest.com accessed 14 July 2022.
150 OIC, R11/5-P(IS), 26–29 January 1987, http://ww1.oic-oci.org/english/conf/is/5/5th-is-sum(political).htm#11 accessed 14 July 2022.
151 ‘TASSA’, 3 February 1987, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 8838, l. 191, GARF.
152 ‘Report’, 6 May 1987, WC, File 02/1, State Central Archive, Prague https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113125 accessed 14 July 2022.
153 Slinkin, Stranitsy, 48.
154 Victor Spolnikov, Afganistan, Islamskaya oppositsiya (Moscow: Nauka, 1990), 128.
155 Kalinovsky, Goodbye, 122–46.
156 Jamiat-e Islami, AFGHANews 3, no. 12, 1 June 1987, 5.
157 Ibid., no. 14, 15 July 1987, 1–3.
158 Kalinovsky, Goodbye, 147–78.
159 ‘TASSA’, 7 October 1987, f. R4459, o. 44, d. 8843, l. 247, GARF.
160 Freedman, Moscow, 279; Grachev, Interview.
161 Khristoforov, Afganistan, 120–1.
162 On Soviet-Afghan tensions over the Geneva Accords: Kalinovsky, Goodbye, 138–64.
163 OIC, R23/17-P, 21–5 March 1988, http://ww1.oic-oci.org/english/conf/fm/17/17%20icfm-political-en.htm#RESOLUTION%20NO.%2023/17-P accessed 14 July 2022.
164 OIC, R23/17-P.
165 Spolnikov, Oppositsiya, 143–4, 149–50.
166 Jamiat-e Islami, AFGHANews 4, no. 1 April 1988, 1.
167 OIC, R18/18-P, 13–6 March 1989, http://ww1.oic-oci.org/english/conf/fm/18/18%20icfm-political-en.htm#RESOLUTION%20NO.18/18-P accessed 14 July 2022.
168 Jamiat-e Islami, AFGHANews 4, no. 2, 15 January 1988, 7.