Negotiating Armageddon: civil defence in NATO and Denmark 1949-59

ABSTRACT

This article follows NATO civil defence planning in the first decade of its existence and asks if and to what extend this affected civil defence in Denmark, a small member state on the front line. The investigation shows a marked shift in NATO planning from the mid-1950s with the advent of the hydrogen bomb. It also shows that Denmark was not unmindful of NATOs recommendations, but in some cases insisted that regional factors must decide practical outcomes. However, even when it did not decide outcomes, NATO brokered cooperation and served as forum for exchange of knowledge.

KEYWORDS:

• Denmark
• nuclear weapons
• civil defence
• Europe
• NATO

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

¹ Harry B. Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield: The U.S. Civil Defence Program in Historical Perspective (Washington D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency, 1981); Lawrence Vale, The Limits of Civil Defence in the USA, Switzerland, Britain and the Soviet Union (New York: Palgrave Macmillan 1987); Matthew Grant, After the Bomb: Civil Defence and Nuclear War in Britain, 1945–68 (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).

² Selected titles include Tracy C. Davis, Stages of Emergency: Cold War Nuclear Civil Defence (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007); Laura McEnaney, Civil Defence Begins at Home. Militarisation Meets Everyday Life in the Fifties (Princeton University Press, 2000); Marie Cronqvist, “Survival in the Welfare Cocoon: The Culture of Civil Defence in Cold War Sweden,” in Cold War Cultures: Perspectives on Eastern and Western European Societies, ed. Annette Vowinckel, Marcus M. Payk, and Thomas Lindenberger (Berghahn Books, 2012), 191–210; Understanding the Imaginary War: Culture, Thought and Nuclear Conflict, 1945–90, ed. Matthew Grant and Benjamin Ziemann (Manchester University Press, 2017), 92–115; Silvia Berger Ziauddin, “(De)Territorializing the Home. The Nuclear Bomb Shelter as a Malleable Site of Passage,” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 35, no. 4 (2017): 674–93; and Rosanna Farbøl, ‘Welfare or Warfare? Civil Defence in Danish Urban Welfare Architecture’, in Cold War cities: Politics, Culture and Atomic Urbanism, ed. Martin Dodge, Richard Brooks and Jonathan Hogg (Abingdon: Routledge, 2021), 201–216.

³ Tina Maria Thønnings, ‘Dansk civilforsvar i den kolde krig’ (master’s thesis, University of Copenhagen, 2016); An early exception is Anders Kristian Bærholm and Jakob K.B. Lorenzen, ‘Hvis krigen kommer – historien om en pjece fra den kolde krig’, in Den kolde krig på hjemmefronten, ed. Klaus Petersen and Nils Arne Sørensen (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2004), 161–82. Other notable contributions are Bjarke Rimmen Noe, Andreas Lie Stokbro and Andreas Juel Høj, ‘Tryghed på tryk. Det danske presseberedskab under den kolde krig’ (master’s thesis, University of Aalborg, 2017); and Sanne Aagaard Jensen, ‘Nuclear-proof communications? The Cold War and the governance of telecommunications security in NATO and Denmark’ (ph.d. thesis, University of Copenhagen, 2018).

⁴ The projects If War Comes (Aalborg University) and DACIDE (University of Southern Denmark), both of which I have been fortunate enough to participate in. I owe much thanks to especially Marianne Rostgaard, Ivan Lind Christensen, Rosanna Farbøl, Casper Sylvest and Marie Cronqvist for including me as well as their contribution of pioneering studies. Marianne Rostgaard and Morten Pedersen, eds., Atomangst og civilt beredskab. Forestillinger om atomkrig i Danmark 1945–1975 (Aalborg University Press, 2020); Marie Cronqvist, Rosanna Farbøl and Casper Sylvest, eds., Cold War Civil Defence in Western Europe: Sociotechnical Imaginaries of Survival and Preparedness (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2022); Casper Sylvest, ‘Pre-enacting the Next War: The Visual Culture of Danish Civil Defence in the Early Nuclear Age’, Cold War History 22, no. 1 (2022): 79–102; and Rosanna Farbøl, ‘Prepare or resist? Cold War Civil Defence and Imaginaries of Nuclear War in Britain and Denmark in the 1980s’, Journal of Contemporary History 57, no. 1 (2022): 136–58.

⁵ An exception is recent works: Iben Bjørnsson, ‘‘Stands tilløb til panik’. Civilforsvarspjecer som social kontrol’, in Atomangst og civilt beredskab, eds., Rostgaard and Pedersen; ‘‘ … order on their Home Fronts’ Imagining war and social control in 1950s NATO’, in Cold War Civil Defence, ed. Cronqvist et al.

⁶ Grant, After the Bomb, 11; Cronqvist ‘Survival in the Welfare Cocoon’

⁷ For a discussion of this, and different levels of civil defence, Vale, The Limits of Civil Defence, 18ff.

⁸ Bjørnsson, ‘Order on Their Home Fronts’, 40–1.

⁹ Karoliina Honkanen, The Influence of Small States on NATO Decision-Making. The Membership Experiences of Denmark, Norway, Hungary and the Czech Republic (Stockholm: FOI / Swedish Defence Research Agency, 2002), 28, 33ff, 199.

¹⁰ Anders Wivel and T.V. Paul, ‘Maximizing Security through International Institutions: Soft-Balancing Strategies Reconsidered’, in Anders Wivel and Paul T.V. International Institutions and Power Politics. Bridging the Divide (Washington DC: Georgetown University Press 2019): 89–100, 91.

¹¹ Honkanen, The Influence of Small States, 41.

¹² Rolf Tamnes, ‘Integration and Screening. The two faces of Norwegian Alliance Policy, 1945–1986’, in Forsvarsstudier / Defence Studies, VI (Oslo: Forsvarets høgskole, 1987): 59–100.

¹³ Poul Villaume, Allieret med forbehold: Danmark, NATO og den kolde krig. En studie i dansk sikkerhedspolitik 1949–1961 (Copenhagen: Eirene, 1995), 27.

¹⁴ Honkanen, The Influence of Small States, 16.

¹⁵ Honkanen, The Influence of Small States, 16–18, 116.

¹⁶ Ivan Lind Christensen and Christian Ydesen, ‘Routes of Knowledge: Toward a Methodological Framework for Tracing the Historical Impact of International Organizations’, European Education 47, no. 3 (2015): 274–88, 276–78.

¹⁷ Geir Lundestad, ‘Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, 1945–1952’, Journal of Peace Research 23, no. 3 (1986): 263–77; Poul Villaume, ‘Det ‘amerikanske århundrede’ og det (selv)inviterede imperiums dualisme’, Historie og historiografi: Festskrift til Inga Floto (Copenhagen: Den danske historiske Forening, 2002), 326–47.

¹⁸ Anders Wivel and T.V. Paul T.V, ‘Exploring International Institutions and Power Politics’, Anders Wivel and Paul T.V. International Institutions and Power Politics: 3–19, 9–10; Austin Carson and Alexander Thompson, ‘The Power in Opacity: Rethinking Information in International Organizations’. Ibid, 101–15.

¹⁹ Correspondence on/with the US. RA 0003, Indenrigsministeriet, 2. Kontor, Civilforsvarssager 1950–1967 (CF), 1950, 1102 9–1105 3: 1, 1102; Correspondence on the Netherlands, USA, Canada, Portugal, etc. ibid., 2; Letter to the military attaché in Washington, 25 April 1950, ibid, 2, 1105/13.

²⁰ Letter from Dahl 26 July, meeting 21 August 1950. RA 0003, CF, 1950, 1102 9–1105 3: 4; ibid. 1105/24. Memorandum October 1953. RA 1261, Schultz, Arbejdsplaner, 11, 1950–53, Status 1951–53; Letter, 30 August 1952. RA 1261, Civilforsvarsstyrelsen (CFS), Kopibøger 1952, 211.

²¹ Council meetings 12 January, 6 March, 24 April, 21 June, 25 October 1951. RA 1261 Civilforsvarsrådets møder 1950–1977 (CRM), 1, 1107, 1952; RA 0003, CF, 41.

²² Memorandum, October 1953. RA 1261: Schultz: Arbejdsplaner 1950–53, 11, Status 1951–53; Letter from Dahl to the Ministry of Interior, 26. July 1950, Letter from the Foreign Ministry of the Ministry of the Interior, 8. August 1950, Council meeting 15 August 1950, RA 1261, CRM, 4, 1105/24.

²³ Full text ‘Atomic Energy Act of 1946’, Atomic Archive, https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/documents/deterrence/atomic-energy-act.html – 14 July 2022.

²⁴ ‘Record of Civil Defence Committee meeting 9–10 February 1953’, NATO Archives (NA) 01 – The North Atlantic Council, AC/23 Series, 1953, Records (AC/23-R/5); Civil organisation in North Atlantic Treaty countries in times of war, 5 June 1952, NA 01, C, 1952, Memoranda (C-M(52)27); Draft progress report to the Council, 24 October 1952, Progress report by the Chairman, 10 November 1952. NA 01, C-M(52)101.

²⁵ Establishment of a Civil Defence Committee, 29 November 1952. NA 01, AC/23 Series, 1952, Documents (AC/23-D/52).

²⁶ ‘Oversigt over vigtigere af indenrigsministeriet gennemførte civilforsvarsforanstaltninger i tiden november 1950-september 1953’, October 1953, RA 1261, Schultz, Diverse notater og referater 1947–1983, 134.

²⁷ ‘Record of Civil Defence Committee meeting 9–10 February 1953’. NA 01 AC/23-R/5; 14 March 1953. AC/23-D/30.

²⁸ ‘Record of meeting in the Committee on Civil Organisation in Time of War’, 21 July 1953. NA 01 AC/23-R/8.

²⁹ ‘Progress report by the chairman of the Committee of Civil Organization in Time of War’ 14, 14 November 1953. NA 01, C-M(53)148.

³⁰ Questionnaire, March, NA 01 AC/23(CD)-D/3; Reply by Danish delegation, 17 April AC/23(CD)-D/17; Report summarising all answers, 28 May 1953. AC/23(CD)-D/44.

³¹ Ibid.; ‘Report to the Committee on Civil Organisation in Time of War’, 7 August 1953. NA 01, AC/23-D/39.

³² SHAPE answers to report on Air Raid Warning Systems, 21 October 1953. NA 01, AC/23(CD)-D/72.

³³ Questionnaire, 6 March. NA 01, AC/23(CD)-D/3; Reply by Danish delegation, 17 April 1953. AC/23(CD)-D/17.

³⁴ Report summarising all answers, 28 May 1953, NA 01, AC/23(CD)-D/44; Summary of meeting 29 June 1953, AC/23(CD)-R/2; ‘Report to the Committee on Civil Organization in Time of War’, 7 August 1953, AC/23-D/39; Report to the Civil Organization Committee, 7 December 1953. AC/23-D/60.

³⁵ ‘Record of meeting in the Committee on Civil Organisation in Time of War, 7 October 1953.’ NA 01, AC/23-R/9.

³⁶ ‘General policy questions’, 7 April 1953. NA 01, AC/23(CD)-D/9.

³⁷ Ibid,; Record of meeting in the Civil Defence Committee, 11 November 1953. NA 01, AC/23-(CD)-R/3.

³⁸ Resolution passed by civil defence committee, 12 November 1953. NA 01, AC/23-D/52; RA 0003, CF, 53, 1146.

³⁹ Letter from Danish representation at the Atlantic Council, 11 December 1953. RA 0003, CF, 53, 1146, 1953.

⁴⁰ Letter and note of January 1954. RA 0003, CF, 53, 1146.

⁴¹ Ibid.

⁴² Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield, p. 14ff, 205, Geist Edward, Armageddon Insurance Civil Defence in the United States and Soviet Union, 1945–1991 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019), 5, 13, 55.

⁴³ ‘Appointment of technical advisers on civil defence problems’ 1 February 1954. NA 01 C-M(54)11; RA 0003, CF, 41, 1146, 1953.

⁴⁴ Record of meeting. 17 May 1954. NA 01 AC/23(CD)R/4; ‘Impact of Civil Defence policies on other NATO committees’, 19 November 1954, AC/23-D/67; Record of meeting 22 November 1954. AC/23(CD)R/5; Record of meeting. 8 July 1955, Records. AC/23(CD)R/6; Memorandum, 19 November 1954. NA 01, RDC Series, 1954, Documents, RDC/571/54.

⁴⁵ ‘Order of priority …, ’ 25 June 1954. NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/91.

⁴⁶ Record of meeting in the Civil Organization Committee 4 December 1954. NA 01, AC/23-R/13.

⁴⁷ 40 års Civilforsvar 1938–1978 (København: Civilforsvarsstyrelsen 1978), 47ff.

⁴⁸ Memorandum, oktober 1953. RA 1261, Schultz, Arbejdsplaner 1950–53, 11, Status 1951–53.

⁴⁹ ‘Civilforsvaret i en brintbombetid’ Arbejdersamariten, 24. årgang, oktober 1955. RA 1261, Schultz, Diverse sager 1947–1983, 126.

⁵⁰ Report summarising all answers, 28 May 1953. NA 01. AC/23(CD)-D/44.

⁵¹ ‘Atomic blast protection’ 22 October 1953, NA 01, AC/23(CD)-N/7; Record of meeting, 11 November 1953, AC/23(CD)-R/3; ‘Experimental atomic explosion in Nevada’ 10 June 1955. AC/23(CD)D/108; ‘Rapport om overværelse af atomdetonation i U.S.A.’ 20/5-1955. RA 1261: Shultz. Materiale vedr. A- og B-bombeproblemer 1949–1983, 1, 1945–1961.

⁵² ‘Lecture R.A.F Land/Air Warfare Course’ 12 February 1953; ‘Speech at nations council’s meeting 9 November 1956’ RA 1261: Shultz. Diverse / foredrag / betænkninger / vejledninger 1938–1983, 131.

⁵³ ‘Vedr.: Brintbomben’ 18 April 1955. RA 1261, Shultz, Civilforsvarsstyrelsens cirkulæreskrivelser 1953–62, 103.

⁵⁴ Record of meeting 8 July 1955. NA 01, AC/23(CD)R/6.

⁵⁵ R. J. McMahon, ‘US national security from Eisenhower to Kennedy’ Melvyn P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad eds., The Cambridge History of the Cold War. Volume I: Origins (Cambridge University Press 2010), 288–311, 293.

⁵⁶ Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield. 197ff; Geist, Armageddon Insurance, 108ff; Marie Cronqvist, ‘Survival in the Welfare Cocoon,’ 202, Peter Bennesved, ‘Sheltered Society: An Analysis of Swedish Shelter Building Technology and Practice 1935–1950’ (Master’s thesis, Umeå University, 2013), 24–25.

⁵⁷ Ralph E. Lapp, ‘Atomic Candour’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 10, no. 8 (1954): 312–14; ‘Civil Defence Faces New Peril’, ibid, 10, 9 (1954): 349–51; Ralph E. Lapp & James Arnold (1955) ‘Radioactive Fall-out’, ibid, 11, 2 (1955): 45–52; Ralph Lapp ‘Global Fall-out’, ibid., 11, 9 (1955): 339–43.

⁵⁸ ‘Nogle hovedindtryk af amerikansk civilforsvar’, 10 January 1955. RA 1261, Schultz, Materiale vedr. udlandet 1947–1983, 217, USA 1951–1960 mm., USA 1951–55.

⁵⁹ Record of meeting 22 November 1954. NA 01, AC/23(CD)R/5.

⁶⁰ Yosphe, Our Missing Shield, 20–23, 116–18. See also Ronald E. Doel, ‘Scientists, Secrecy, and Scientific Intelligence in Cold War America’, Cold War Science and the Transatlantic Circulation of Knowledge, ed. Jeroen van. Dongen (Leiden: Brill 2015), 11–35, 11–13 and Simone Turchetti, ‘A Need-To-Know-More Criterion? Science and Information Security at NATO during the Cold War’, ibid: 36–58.

⁶¹ Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield, 197–8.

⁶² ‘DRAFT AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE PARTIES … ’ 10 March 1955. NA 01, C-M(55)31. See also RA 0003, CF, 70, 1104/9; ibid. 77.

⁶³ Marianne Rostgaard and Ivan Lind Christensen, ‘Alkymistens drøm og fru Bergmanns kaffe: Forankring af viden om atombomber og radioaktivitet mellem videnskab og dagligdag i Danmark 1945–1963’, Kulturstudier 10, no. 2 (2019): 37–61; ibid. ‘Den forsinkede frygt: Atombomber, radioaktivitet og videnstransformation i dagspressen 1945–1963’ TEMP – tidsskrift for historie 11, no. 21 (2020): 126–55; Ralph E. Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon (New York: Harper, 1958); Carolyn Kopp, ‘The Origins of the American Scientific Debate over Fallout Hazards,’ Social Studies of Science 9, no. 4 (1979): 403–22; and Sarah Bridger, Scientists at War: The Ethics of Cold War Weapons Research (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 2015, 25ff.

⁶⁴ Record of meeting, 12–13 March 1957, NA 01, AC/23(CD)R/10; RA 1261, Shultz, Materiale vedr. A- og B-bombeproblemer 1949–1983: 1, 1945–1961.

⁶⁵ ‘Civil Defence and Thermo-Nuclear Weapons’, 25 November 1954, NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/98.

⁶⁶ ‘The application of the new assumptions to the work of the emergency planning committees’ 27 May 1955. NA 01, C-M(55)48(Final).

⁶⁷ Ibid.

⁶⁸ ‘Civil Defence and Thermo-Nuclear Weapons’, 25 November 1954. NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/98.

⁶⁹ Ibid; Record of meeting 8 July 1955, NA 01 AC/23(CD)R/6.

⁷⁰ ‘US proposal for reorganization of civil emergency planning’, 20 August 1955, NA 01, C-M(55)75.

⁷¹ Draft resolution, 3 November 1955, NA 01 C-M(55)95; Final resolution, 10 November 1955 C-M(55)100; Record of council meeting 14 November 1955, C-R(55)50; For earlier drafts and discussions, see AC 95 Series.

⁷² ‘Assumptions for Civil Emergency Planning’ 2 May 1956. NA 01, AC/98 Series, 1956, Documents, AC/98-D/14(Final).

⁷³ ‘High Priority Goals And Objectives for Civil Emergency Planning and Review of Progress’, draft report 5 November 1956, NA 01, AC/98-D/40; Final report, C-M(57)12.

⁷⁴ ‘High Priority Goals for Civil Emergency Planning and Review of Progress’ 15 October 1956, NA 01, AC/98-D/31.

⁷⁵ ‘Meeting in the Senior Civil Emergency Planning Committee, 26–27 April 1956’, NA 01 AC/98-R/2; Corrigendum 2 to Document AC/98-D/14(Final) 15 February 1957.

⁷⁶ Record of meeting, 15–16 October 1957. NA 01, AC/98-R/4.

⁷⁷ Report from trip to Sweden 14 May 1955. RA 1261, Schultz. Diverse rapporter og betænkninger 1947–1983: 132, 1952–55. ‘Memorandum om de nucleare våbens indflydelse på civilforsvarets planlægning’. November 1955, quote, XIX. RA 1261, Shultz, Memoranda, 1949–1980, 1953–1968: 185.

⁷⁸ F. Biess, ‘‘Everybody has a Chance’: Nuclear Angst, Civil Defence, and the History of Emotions in Postwar West Germany’, German History 27, no. 2 (2009): 215–43, 226.

⁷⁹ ‘Report on tripartite Conference on Radiological Defence … 15 and 16 November 1956’, NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/178.

⁸⁰ Construction of shelters. 31 May 1957, NA 01 AC/23(CD)D/183.

⁸¹ Record of meeting held on 14–15 January 1957, NA 01, AC/98-R/3.

⁸² Yosphe, Our Missing Shield, 209ff, 216, Geist, Armageddon Insurance, 100ff.

⁸³ Record of meeting, 12–13 March 1957, NA 01, AC/23(CD)R/10.

⁸⁴ Yosphe, Our Missing Shield, 188, ‘obnoxious’, Geist, Armageddon Insurance 101–104.

⁸⁵ ‘Report by the ad hoc Working Party on Evacuation and Dispersal’, 17 April 1956, NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/133; ‘Construction of Shelters’, 31 May 1957, AC/23(CD)D/183.

⁸⁶ Record of meeting, 12–13 March 1957, NA 01, AC/23(CD)R/10.

⁸⁷ ‘Construction of shelters,’ 31 May 1957. NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/183.

⁸⁸ ‘Civil Emergency planning review of progress, 1957. Report by the Civil Defence Committee’, 13 September 1957, NA 01, AC/98-D/53.

⁸⁹ Meeting 8 November 1957. RA 1261, Schultz, Materiale vedr. diverse udvalg 1950–1970, Brandudvalget 1954–1955 mm.: 144.

⁹⁰ Udkast til mødet den 16/5-1956, ibid.

⁹¹ ‘Vi må regne med angreb med nucleare våben af alle typer som en realitet.’ ‘Planning assumptions. (Løst idéudkast)’, ibid.

⁹² Meeting 8 November 1957, ibid.

⁹³ RA 0003, 2. Almindelige Kontor, Visdomsbog for civilforsvar 1945/1950-1980: 1, § 1–2

⁹⁴ ‘da midlerne stort set er de samme’ – ‘Grundlaget for Civilforsvarets planlægning’, Civilforsvarsstyrelsen, 19 October 1959. RA 0003, CF, 1950–1967: 109.

⁹⁵ ‘Assumptions for Civil Emergency Planning’ 2 May 1956. NA 01, AC/98 Series, 1956, Documents, AC/98-D/14(Final).

⁹⁶ ‘Additional information (…). Note by the Danish delegation’ 8 January 1957. NA 01, AC/23/CD(D)/164.

⁹⁷ Statement on evacuation, 5 October 1957. RA 1261, Shultz, Diverse / foredrag / betænkninger / vejledninger 1938–1983: 131.

⁹⁸ ‘Note by the Danish delegation on construction of shelters,’ 9 April 1958. NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/262.

⁹⁹ Exercise DANLOG – April 1958. Statement by Erik Schultz, 24. April 1958. 22/6 1959. RA 1261, Shultz, Diverse / foredrag / betænkninger / vejledninger 1938–1983: 131.

¹⁰⁰ 22/6 1959. RA 1261, Shultz, Diverse / foredrag / betænkninger / vejledninger 1938–1983: 131. NATO Civil Defence Committee’s visit to Denmark, May 1959. Statement on Evacuation and Shelters. Shultz, Materiale vedr. besøg fra udlandet m.m., 1947–1983: 42.

¹⁰¹ Introductory remarks on Danish Civil Defence. 22/6 1959. RA 1261, Shultz, Diverse / foredrag / betænkninger / vejledninger 1938–1983: 131.

¹⁰² Record of meeting, 15–16 October 1957, NA 01, AC/98-R/4.

¹⁰³ ‘The Minimum Essential Force Requirements, 1958–1963’ 29 January 1958, MC 70 (MILDEC) 8 May 1958 and MC 70 FINAL 9 May 1958. NA 03 – Military Committee, MC Series, 1958.

¹⁰⁴ ‘Statement on Warning … ’, 24 July 1958. NA 03, SGM Series, 1958, SGM-460-58.

¹⁰⁵ ‘Statement on Warning … ’, 24 July 1958. NA 03, SGM Series, 1958, SGM-460-58.

¹⁰⁶ ‘Statement on Warning … ’, 24 July 1958. SGM-460-58; See also ‘Statement of warning … ’ 1 August 1958. NA 03, SGWM Series, 1958, SGWM-449-58.

¹⁰⁷ ‘Civil Emergency Planning Assumptions – The Effect of the New Military Appreciation’, 16 October 1958, NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/297.

¹⁰⁸ ‘Record of meeting 12–13 November 1959’, 28 December 1959. NA 01, AC/98-R/6.

¹⁰⁹ Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield, 240–241; Geist, Armageddon Insurance, 119ff.

¹¹⁰ ‘Note by the United States Delegation (…) on Shelters’ 23 May 1958. NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/272.

¹¹¹ ‘Record of meeting in the Senior Committee 15–16 October 1958’. NA 01, AC/98-R/5.

¹¹² ‘Meeting of the Senior Civil Emergency Planning Committee – Civil Defence’, 21 October 1958. NA 01, RDC/58/378.

¹¹³ Record of meeting in the Senior Committee 15–16 October 1958. NA 01, AC/98-R/5.

¹¹⁴ ‘Editorial: The Shelter Problem’, NATO Civil Defence Bulletin, December 1958. RA 1261, Schultz, NATO-CF-Bulletiner 1947–1983; 201: 1954–1959. See also NATO Civil Defence Bulletin October 1957, ibid; Orientering, nr. 4, 29 April 1957. RA 1261, Schultz, Mødereferater, diverse udvalg 1947–1983: 195.

¹¹⁵ ‘Shelters’ 24 August 1959. NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/335.

¹¹⁶ Record of meeting 3–4 November 1959. NA 01 AC/23(CD)R/15.

¹¹⁷ Yearly review, 8 October 1959. NA 01, AC/98-D/87; Record of meeting 12–13 November 1959, AC/98-R/6.

¹¹⁸ ‘Editorial: How NATO helps Civil Defence’, NATO Civil Defence Bulletin, July 1958. RA 1261, Schultz, NATO-CF-Bulletiner 1947–1983, 201: 1954–1959. The article was translated and appeared in the Danish civil defence bulleting Orientering. Orientering 4, 23 April 1959, ibid, 195.

¹¹⁹ ‘Review of the work of the Civil Defence Committee … ’ 13 August 1959. NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/333.

¹²⁰ Letters and press clippings, June 1959. RA 1261, Shultz, Materiale vedr. Besøg fra udlandet m.m., 1947–1983, ks. 42.

¹²¹ ‘Review of the work of the Civil Defence Committee … ’ 13 August 1959. NA 01, AC/23(CD)D/333.

¹²² Record of meeting, 12–13 March 1957, NA 01 AC/23(CD)R/10; 25 May 1959, NA 01, AC/23(CD)R/14; Yearly Review of Progress, 3 July 1959. NA 01, AC/98-D/80; Yearly review, 8 October 1959. NA 01, AC/98; Record of meeting, 3–4 November 1959. NA 01, AC/23(CD)R/15; 12–13 November 1959. NA 01, AC/98-R/6: AC/23(CD WARN)D/18, 17 October 1959, Fallout Exercise SIGNAL FIRE”, July 1960, RA 1261, Shultz. Materiale vedr. A- og B-bombeproblemer 1949–1983, ks. 2, 1945–1961; 2 April 1959, 26 January 1960, RA 1261 CRM, 2; Letter 19 February 1959, ‘Rapport vedr. Øvelse CLOUD DRAGON’, June 1959. RA 0003, CF, 121, 1131; Orientering, 4, 23 April 1959, RA 1261, Schultz, NATO-CF-Bulletiner 1947–1983.

¹²³ Bodil Frandsen, ‘Hvis krigen kommer. En undersøgelse af det centrale civile beredskab og Regan Vest under Den Kolde Krig 1950–1968’ (PhD Thesis, Aalborg University, 2021), 95–97; Garrett M. Graff, Raven Rock: The Story of the U.S. Government’s Secret Plan To Save Itself – While The Rest Of Us Die (New York: Simon & Schuster 2017); Hennessy, Peter, The Secret State. Preparing for the Worst 1945–2010 (London: Penguin Books, 2010).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Velux Fonden [Museums Programme].