Turkish Identity Formation and Political Mobilization in Western Europe and North America

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Notes

1. Thomas Faist (ed.), Dual Citizenship in Europe: From Nationhood to Societal Integration (Avebury, UK: Ashgate, 2007); Irene Bloemraad, Anna Korteweg and Gökçe Yurdakul, “Citizenship and Immigration: Assimilation, Multiculturalism and the Challenges to the Nation State,” Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 34 (2008), pp. 153–79.

2. Statistics obtained from Turkish Foreign Ministry and Turkish Employment Office.

3. Ayşe Çağlar, “Constraining Metaphors and the Transnationalization of Spaces in Berlin,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 27, No. 4 (2001), pp. 601–13.

4. See Nermin Abadan‐Unat, (ed.), Turkish Workers in Europe 1960–1975: A Socio‐economic Reappraisal (Leiden: EJ Brill, 1976).

5. For previous research on political participation of immigrants, see John Rex, Daniele Joly and Czarina Wilpert, Immigrant Associations in Europe (Aldershot: Gower Publishing Company, 1987); Yasemin Nuhoğlu Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Gerdien Jonker and Valerie Amiraux, Politics of Visibility: Young Muslims in European Public Spaces (Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag, 2006).

6. Joanna Apap, “Shaping Europe’s Migration Policy,” ERA‐Forum, Vol. 3, No. 3 (2002), pp.151–57.

7. Riva Kastoryano, “Between Europe and Nation‐states: The Turkish Transnational Community,” in Rosemarie Sackman and Bernhard Peters (eds.), Identity and Integration: Migrants in Western Europe (Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2003), pp. 189–203; see also Samim Akgönül, “Din, Çok Bağımlılık ve Kimlik Korkusu Ekseninde Fransa Türkleri,” [Turks in France in the Axis of Religion, Extreme Dependency and Fear of Losing Identity] in Didem Danış and Verda İrtiş (eds.), Entegrasyonun Ötesinde Türkiye’den Fransa’ya Göç ve Göçmenlik Halleri [Emigration from Turkey to France and Situation of Migrants Beyond Integration] (Istanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2008), pp. 91–119.

8. Dirk Jacobs, Marco Martiniello and Andrea Rea, “Changing Patterns of Political Participation of Citizens of Immigrant Origin in the Brussels Capital Region: The October 2000 Elections,” Journal of International Migration and Integration, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2002), pp. 201–21.

9. Ayhan Kaya, “Euro‐Turks: Dwelling in a Space of their Own,” Private View (The Quarterly International Review of the Turkish Industrialists’ and Businessmen’s Association), No. 12 (Autumn 2007), p. 74.

10. For a discussion on cultural identity of second‐generation Turkish immigrants in Germany and the United States, see Zeynep Kılıç, “Second‐generation Turkish Immigrants in the United States and Germany: Dilemmas of Cultural Identity,” in Holger Henke (ed.), Crossing Over: Comparing Recent Migration in the United States and Europe (Lanham: Lexington, 2005), pp. 163–81.

11. Thomas Faist, The Volume and Dynamics of International Migration and Transnational Social Spaces (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Nedim Ögelman, “Documenting and Explaining the Persistence of Homeland Politics among Germany’s Turks,” International Migration Review, Vol. 37, No. 1 (2003), pp. 163–93.

12. See Barbara Donovan, “‘Minority’ Representation in Germany,” German Politics, Vol. 16, No. 4, (2007), pp. 455–80; for a project on immigrant participation in politics also see Mannheimer Zentrum für Europäische Sozialforschung, “Migranten als politische akteure” [Migrants as Political Actors], www.migractors.de.

13. In early 2009, there were five members of parliament in Germany at the federal level: Dr. Lale Akgün (SPD), Prof. Hakkı Keskin, Hüseyin Kenan Akın, and Sevim Dağdelen (PDS), and Ekin Deligöz (Greens). There is significant number of MPs at the state (Laender) level, such as from Berlin, Emine Demirbüken‐Wegner (Christian Democratic Union), Dilek Kolat, Ülker Radziwill, Canan Bayram (SPD), Özcan Mutlu and Bilkay Öney (Greens), Evrim Helin Baba and Giyasettin Sayan (PDS); from Lower Saxony, Filiz Polat (Greens); from Hamburg, Aygül Özkan and David Erkalp (CDU), Bülent Çiftlik and Metin Hakverdi (SPD), Mehmet Yıldız (PDS), and Nebahat Güçlü (Greens); from Bremen, Mustafa Güngör and Şükrü Şenkal (SPD), Mustafa Öztürk (Greens), Şirvan Çakıcı (PDS), and from Hessen, Turgut Yüksel (SPD) and Mürvet Öztürk (Greens). A number of them are of Kurdish background.

14. Zeynep Aycan and John W. Berry, “Impact of Employment‐related Experiences on Immigrants’ Psychological Well‐being and Adaptation to Canada,” Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 28, No. 3 (1996), pp. 240–51; Ilhan Kaya, “Religion as a Site of Boundary Construction: Islam and the Integration of Turkish Americans in the United States,” Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, Vol. 6, Nos. 1–2 (2007), pp. 139–55; Irene Bloemraad and S. Karthick Ramakrishnan, Civic Hopes and Political Realities: Immigrant Community Organizations and Political Engagement (London: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008).

15. Ruth Mandel, Cosmopolitan Anxieties: Turkish Challenges to Citizenship and Belonging in Germany (Durham: Duke University Press, 2008); Gökçe Yurdakul, From Guest Workers into Muslims: The Transformation of Turkish Immigrant Associations in Germany (Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2009).

16. Gamze Avcı, “Comparing Integration Policies and Outcomes: Turks in the Netherlands and Germany,” Turkish Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2006), pp. 67–84; Peter Doerschler, “Push‐pull Factors and Immigrant Political Integration in Germany,” Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 87 (2006), pp. 1100–16; Anja Heelsum, “Political Participation and Civic Community of Ethnic Minorities in Four Cities in the Netherlands,” Politics, Vol. 25, No. 10 (2005), pp. 19–30; Nedim Ögelman, Jeannette Money and Philip L. Martin, “Immigrant Cohesion and Political Access in Influencing Foreign Policy,” SAIS Review, Vol. 22, No. 2 (2002), pp. 145–65; Zeynep Sezgin, “Turkish Migrants’ Organization: Promoting Tolerance Toward the Diversity of Turkish Migrants in Germany,” International Journal of Sociology, Vol. 38, No. 2 (2008), pp. 78–95; Marieke van Londen, Karen Phalet and Louk Hagendoorn, “Civic Engagement and Voter Participation among Turkish and Moroccan Minorities in Rotterdam,” Journal Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 33, No. 8 (2007), pp. 1201–26.

17. Dirk Jacobs, Karen Phalet and Marc Swyngedouw, “Political Participation and Associational Life of Turkish Residents in the Capital of Europe,” Turkish Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2006), pp. 145–61; Therese De Raedt, “Muslims in Belgium: A Case Study of Emerging Identities,” Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 24, No. 1 (2004), pp. 9–30; Christiane Timmerman, “Gender Dynamics in the Context of Turkish Marriage Migration,” Turkish Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2006), pp. 125–43; Johan Wets, “The Turkish Community in Austria and Belgium: The Challenge of Integration,” Turkish Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2006), pp. 85–100; Ural Manço and Meryem Kanmaz, “From Conflict to Co‐operation between Muslims and Local Authorities in a Brussels Borough: Schaerbeek,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 31, No. 6 (2005), pp. 1105–23.

18. Sabine Kroissenbrunner, “Islam and Muslim Immigrants in Austria: Socio‐political Networks and Muslim Leadership of Turkish Immigrants,” Immigrants and Minorities, Vol. 22, Nos. 2–3 (2003), pp. 188–207.

19. Talip Küçükcan, “The Making of Turkish Muslim Diaspora in Britain: Religious Collective Identity in a Multicultural Public Sphere,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 24, No. 2 (2004), pp. 243–58.

20. Riva Kastaoryano, Negotiating Identities: States and Immigrants in France and Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002); Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).