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Abstract
This study discusses the limits of Turkey's discourse and practice on humanitarian diplomacy with respect to its peacebuilding in Somalia. The Turkish model of humanitarian diplomacy attempts to find a balance between conscience and interest. It is multi-track in that it pursues diplomacy through official, civic and business channels. Although there is a humanitarian dimension to Turkey's policy in Somalia, there is also a dimension of interest and power, indicating a long-term projection of securing a role for itself in regional and international politics. As tools of humanitarian diplomacy, mediation and peacebuilding provide Turkey with regional and global prestige, status and leverage ensuring safe entry into volatile and dangerous post-conflict zones such as Somalia. Humanitarian diplomacy is an ideal that adds a human dimension to diplomacy. Its realization is limited by the realities on the ground, the interests of the intervening country, the public support for humanitarian diplomacy, the capacity of the intervening country as well as by the need for regional recognition and international support.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the editors of Turkish Studies Emel Parlar Dal, Tarık Oğuzlu, the anonymous referees and Bülent Aras for their valuable comments.
Notes on contributor
Pinar Akpinar is Vice Director of the Center for International Conflict Resolution at Yalova University. She is also a PhD candidate at the School of Politics, International Relations and Philosophy, Keele University. Her research interests are Turkish Foreign Policy and Conflict Resolution and Mediation with a critical perspective. Currently, she is working on mediation as a tool of Turkish foreign policy and Turkey's mediation approach in international conflicts.
Notes
1. Bağcı and Kardaş, “Exploring Turkey's Role in Peace Operations,” 125–45; Altunışık and Çuhadar, “Turkey's Search for a Third Party Role,” 371–92; Aras, “Davutoğlu Era in Turkish Foreign Policy”; Bayer and Keyman, “Turkey: An Emerging Hub of Globalization and Internationalist Humanitarian Actor?” 73–90.
2. Bayer and Keyman, “Turkey: An Emerging Hub of Globalization and Internationalist Humanitarian Actor?” 77.
3. Aras, Turkey's Mediation and Friends of Mediation Initiative, 1–2.
4. Diamond and McDonald, Multi-track Diplomacy.
5. Davutoğlu, “History Flowed Fast in 2012.”
6. Davutoğlu, “Turkey's Humanitarian Diplomacy.”
7. Ibid.
8. See, Minear and Smith, “Introduction,” 1; Harroff-Tavel, “The Humanitarian Diplomacy of the International Committee of the Red Cross.”
9. Regnier, “The Emerging Concept of Humanitarian Diplomacy,” 1212.
10. Lamb, “Humanitarian Diplomacy.”
11. Harroff-Tavel, “The Humanitarian Diplomacy of the International Committee of the Red Cross.”
12. Regnier, “The Emerging Concept of Humanitarian Diplomacy,” 1212.
13. Ibid., 1213.
14. Diamond and McDonald, Multi-track Diplomacy.
15. Davutoglu, “Turkey's Humanitarian Diplomacy.”
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Barnett, “Duties Beyond Borders,” 189–203.
19. Ibid., 192.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid., 193.
22. Ibid.
23. Davutoglu, “Turkey's Humanitarian Diplomacy.”
24. Ibid.
25. Özkan, “A New Actor or Passer-By?” 113.
26. Aras, “Turkey's Policy in Africa.”
27. Aras, “Turkey's Africa Policy.”
28. Ibid.
29. Akpınar, “Turkish Aid to Somalia.”
30. Oran, “Türk Dış Politikası,” 154, 402.
31. The African Union Mission in Somalia is the Regional Peacekeeping Mission created by the African Union's Peace and Security Council, with the Approval of the United Nations. See, AMISOM website, “AMISOM Background,” July 9, 2013. http://amisom-au.org/about/amisom-background/
32. Turkish Foreign Ministry, “Somali Bilgi Notu.”
33. The ministries that have been involved in Turkey's Somali initiative are the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of National Education, the Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Livestock, the Ministry of Transportation, the Maritime Affairs, and Communications, the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, the Ministry of Development, and the Ministry of Science, Industry, and Technology. Some of the state institutions involved are the Office of Public Diplomacy, the DRA, the Foundation for Religious Affairs (TDV), the Housing Development Administration of Turkey (TOKİ), the TARC, and the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency (DEMP), all operating under the Office of the Prime Minister.
34. Todays Zaman, “İstanbul Conference Raises Hopes for War-torn Somalia,” May 24, 2010.
35. Davutoğlu, “Press Conference Proceedings.”
36. Ibid.
37. Davutoğlu, “A New Vision for Least Developed Countries,” 4–5.
38. TIKA, Türkiye Kalkınma Yardımları Raporu 2011, 7.
39. Torun spent a considerable amount of his life in several African countries and has a command of some African languages.
40. Bradbury and Healy, Endless War.
41. Menkhaus et al., A History of Mediation in Somalia Since 1988.
42. Crisis Group, “Somalia: The Transitional Government on Life Support.”
43. See, Gjelsvik and Bjørgo, Ex-pirates in Somalia.
44. CIA, “World Fact Book: Somalia.”
45. Ahmed, “Islam and Development,” 69–70.
46. BBC, “Q&A: Who are Somalia's al-Shabaab?” BBC, October 5, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15336689
47. Menkhaus et al., A History of Mediation in Somalia Since 1988, 10.
48. Ibid., 18.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid., 19.
51. Ibid.
52. For an account on the role of business associations in Turkey's new foreign policy, see, Öniş, “Multiple Faces of the ‘New’ Turkish Foreign Policy,” 47–65.
53. On the role of civil society in Turkey's engagement with Africa, see, Özkan and Akgün, “Turkey's Opening to Africa,” 525–46.
54. BBC, “Somalia: Turkish Airlines Begins Flights to Mogadishu.” BBC Website, March 6, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17269620
55. Al Jazeera, “Country Profile: Somalia,” September 9, 2012. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/08/201281985222499991.html
56. Turkish Statistical Institute, “Foreign Trade Statistics Yearbook,” 46.
58. Global Trade Website, “International Trade in Somalia.”
59. The Turkish Red Crescent, the Humanitarian Aid Relief Foundation, Doctors Worldwide, Kimse Yok Mu?, the Cansuyu Foundation, the Nile Foundation, the Helping Hands Foundation, the Deniz Feneri Foundation, the Hasene Foundation, the Foundation for World Orphans (DÜNYEV), and the Beşir Foundation are some of the organizations delivering educational aid to Somalia.
60. The Turkish Red Crescent, the Doctors Worldwide, the Humanitarian Relief Foundation, Kimse Yok Mu?, the International Anatolian Health Federation, the Helping Hands Foundation, the Physicians for Hope Foundation (ÜHDER), the Deniz Feneri Foundation, the Une Seule Humanité (BISEG), the Dost Eli Foundation, the Dosteller Aid and Solidarity Foundation, and the Kutup Yıldızı Foundation are some of the Turkish NGOs delivering medical relief to Somalia.
61. Among the NGOs and charities, the Humanitarian Relief Foundation and Kimse Yok Mu? stand out with their religious aid, along with the Beşir Foundation, the Helping Hands Foundation, the Deniz Feneri Foundation, the Hasene Foundation, the Dost Eli Foundation, and the Cansuyu Foundation. Please see their respective websites for more information.
62. Personal interview with Bülent Aras, Head of Center for Strategic Research at the Turkish Foreign Ministry, June 21, 2013.
63. Turkish Foreign Ministry, “Somali Bilgi Notu.”
64. Murphy and Sazak, “Turkey's Civilian Capacity in Post-Conflict Reconstruction,” 11.
65. Erdoğan, “Tears of Somalia.”
66. Personal interview with Bülent Aras, Head of Center for Strategic Research at the Turkish Foreign Ministry, June 21, 2013.
67. Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Historic Somalia Summit in Ankara: Presidents of Somalia and Somaliland Met in Ankara.”
68. Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Ankara Communique.”
69. Crisis Group, “Assessing Turkey's Role in Somalia,” 5.
70. Torun, “Mediation in Somalia.”
71. Ibid.
72. Personal interview with Mustafa Şahin, Head of Center for Development Research, at the Turkish Ministry of Development, November 28, 2012, Brasilia.
73. Regnier, “The Emerging Concept of Humanitarian Diplomacy,” 1221.
74. Barrow, Jamal Mohamed, Deputy Foreign Minister of Somalia, Interview by Pınar Akpınar, Center for Strategic Research, April 11, 2013.
75. Personal e-mail correspondence with Doctors Worldwide, December 22, 2012.
76. Crisis Group, “Assessing Turkey's Role in Somalia,” 8.
77. Interview with Jamal Mohamed Barrow.
78. Ibid.
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid.
81. Ibid.
82. Personal interview with Necdet Subaşı, Chief of Department of Strategy Development, Directorate of Religious Affairs, April 8, 2013, Ankara.
83. Personal interview with Necdet Subaşı.
84. Milliyet, “Türkiye'nin yardımı Somali'yi ikiye böldü,” February 20, 2012.
85. Gullo, “Turkey's Somalia Adventure.”
86. Hazar, “Başbakan Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’ın Afrika Ziyareti.”
87. Interview with Jamal Mohamed Barrow.
88. Barnett and Weiss, “Humanitarianism: A Brief History of the Present,” 3.
89. The Reyhanlı Bombings, the deadliest terror attack ever in Turkey, took place in Reyhanlı, Hatay on May 11, 2013. Conducted by Turkish nationals, the attack was allegedly supported by the Syrian regime according to Turkish official statement. See, Al Arabiya, “Turkey Charges Prime Suspect in Car Bombings, Report Says,” May 21, 2013.
90. S. B. and A. Z., “Fear and Fallout in Reyhanli.”
91. Turkish Weekly, “Turkey Unveils Humanitarian Diplomacy,” January 11, 2013.
92. Radikal, “Somali'de Kızılay konvoyuna saldırı,” April 14, 2013.
93. NORAD, Evaluation of the Norwegian Research and Development Activities; Moolakkattu, “Peace Facilitation by Small States,” 385–402.
94. Buo, “Africa's Lesson in Self-Reliance.”
95. Haber 7, “Beyaz Türkiye'nin Kara Afrika'daki İmajı,” Haber 7 Website, September 22, 2010. http://www.haber7.com/haber/20100922/Beyaz-Turkiyenin-kara-Afrikadaki-imaji.php
96. Crisis Group, “Assessing Turkey's Role in Somalia,” 10.
97. Akpınar, “Is Turkey a Loner on the Thorny Path to Peace?”