Recruitment or enlistment? Individual integration into the Turkish Hezbollah

ABSTRACT

Radicalization and pathways to terrorism have been issues of dispute which owe their complexity to multiple dimensions and perspectives from different disciplines at different levels. This study focuses on the two competing perspectives on joining violent radical groups represented in the Hofman-Sageman debate: recruitment/facilitation or enlistment. It also elaborates on affiliative factors (kinship/first-circle-peers) and religiosity to analyze the conditions under which university students were drawn into Turkish Hezbollah (TH), a terrorist organization in Turkey. By using individual-level self-report data this study finds that kinship structures had a determinative impact on individuals’ enlistment through ‘Social Learning,’ specifically, on embracing TH membership as a ‘favorable definition’ and/or a ‘norm’ within their original habitat. Yet, weakened ‘Social Control/Bond’ from home/original habitat made students significantly more vulnerable to TH’s recruitment structures. This study argues that both approaches – recruitment and enlistment – have substantial explanatory power; however, under certain underlying sociological conditions. In that while weakened social bonds supplement recruitment, having militants in kinship structures particularly make young college students vulnerable to be drawn into violent radical networks through enlistment. This study also asserts that neither the religiosity of militants nor that of their families had a statistically significant effect on their integration into TH.

KEYWORDS:

• Radicalization
• violent extremism
• recruitment–enlistment
• terrorism
• Turkish Hezbollah

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors

Mustafa Coşar Ünal is an Adjunct Associate Professor at Bilkent University. He received his Ph.D. in 2009 in Public Policy and Administration from the University of Maryland. He has taught graduate and undergraduate courses on terrorism, intelligence, security, and public policy at different institutions, including Bilkent University, Gazi University, Center of Excellence – Defense Against Terrorism (COE-DAT), and the Security Science Institute. His research is mostly on terrorism and other types of political violence, asymmetric conflict, conflict management and resolution, insurgency, counterinsurgency (COIN), counterterrorism (CT), COIN doctrines and strategies, intelligence, and national security. His recent publications include articles in journals such as Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Terrorism & Political Violence, Small Wars & Insurgences, and Crime, Law, and Socia Change, as well as Counterterrorism in Turkey: Policy Choices and Policy Effects toward the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) (Routledge).

Tuncay Ünal received his Ph.D. in 2010 in Public Policy and Administration from the Virginia Commonwealth University. In his professional career, he dealt with strategic and tactical level analyses on terrorism and security issues. His research is mostly on terrorism, insurgency, counterinsurgency (COIN), counterterrorism (CT), intelligence, and research methods.

Notes

1 Horgan, “Individual Disengagement,” 17.

2 McGlynn and McDaid, “Radicalisation and Higher Education,” 2.

3 Adam, “British Universities.”

4 Harrison, “Campus Extremism.”

5 Sedgwick, “The Concept of Radicalization,” 480.

6 Neumann, “The Trouble,” 873.

7 Spalek, “Radicalisation, De-radicalisation and Counter-radicalisation,” 39.

8 King and Taylor, “The Radicalization of Homegrown Jihadists,” 605.

9 Borum, “Radicalization into Violent Extremism,” 2–7.

10 In this study, terms such as ‘violent radical groups,’ ‘radical networks,’ ‘terrorist groups/networks’ are used interchangeably as they are in the radicalization and terrorism literature.

11 Brady, Schlozman, and Verba, “Prospecting for Participants,” 157.

12 Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks, 54.

13 Horgan, “Individual Disengagement,” 22.

14 Borum, “Psychology of Terrorism,” 12.

15 Brown and Saeed, “Radicalization and Counter-radicalization,” 158.

16 Brady, Schlozman, and Verba, “Prospecting for Participants,” 159.

17 Borum, “Radicalization into Violent Extremism I,” 15.

18 McGlynn and McDaid, “Radicalisation and Higher Education,” 5.

19 Vold, Bernard, and Snipes, Theoretical Criminology, 185.

20 Akers et al., “Social Learning,” 642.

21 Conger, “Social Control,” 18.

22 Githens-Mazer and Lambert, “Why Conventional Wisdom,” 894; Bouhana and Wikstrom, “Al Qai’da-Influenced Radicalisation,” 2.

23 Spalek, “Radicalisation, De-radicalisation and Counter-radicalisation,” 39–52; Neumann, “The Trouble,” 873–93.

24 Borum, “Radicalization into Violent Extremism,” 14.

25 Wuchte and Mehdi, “Countering Violent Extremism,” 78.

26 Hudson and Marilyn, “The Sociology,” 14.

27 Bjorgo, “Dreams and Disillusionment,” 281.

28 Horgan, Individual Disengagement, 17–29.

29 Githens-Mazer and Lambert, “Why Conventional Wisdom,” 890.

30 Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks; Horgan, “Deradicalization or Disengagement,” 293; Stern and Amit, “Producing Terror,” 259.

31 Spalek, “Radicalisation, De-radicalisation and Counter-radicalisation,” 39–52.

32 Neumann, The Trouble with Radicalization, 875.

33 Spalek, “Radicalisation, De-radicalisation and Counter-radicalisation,” 39.

34 Neumann, “The Trouble,” 874.

35 Davis and Cragin, Social Science, 30.

36 Pettigrew et al., “Relative Deprivation,” 385–401; Runciman, Relative Deprivation.

37 Sageman, Leaderless Jihad; Silber and Arvin, Radicalization, 17.

38 Borum, “Understanding,” 8; Wiktorowicz, “Joining the Cause”; Moghaddam, “The Staircase to Terrorism,” 163.

39 Wright, Donald, and Moghaddam Fathali, “Responding to Membership,” 997.

40 Jenkins, “Building an Army of Believers,” 3.

41 Crenshaw, “The Psychology of Terrorism,” 407.

42 Borum, “Understanding,” 8; Wiktorowicz, “Joining the Cause”; Moghaddam, “The Staircase to Terrorism,” 163.

43 Morris et al., “Deradicalization,” 4.

44 McGlynn and McDaid, “Radicalisation and Higher Education,” 2.

45 Wuchte and Mehdi, “Countering Violent Extremism,” 81.

46 Borum, “Radicalization into Violent Extremism,” 15; McGlynn and McDaid, “Radicalisation and Higher Education,” 4; Wuchte and Mehdi, “Countering Violent Extremism,” 79; Dean, “Criminal Profiling,” 172.

47 Brady, Schlozman, and Verba, “Prospecting for Participants,” 156.

48 Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks.

49 Spalek, “Radicalisation, De-radicalisation and Counter-radicalisation,” 40.

50 Van San, Siekelinck, and Winter, “Ideals Adrift,” 278.

51 Spalek, “Radicalisation, De-radicalisation and Counter-radicalisation,” 44.

52 Bigo et al., Preventing and Countering.

53 Wali, Radicalism Unveiled, 43.

54 Hirschi, “A Control Theory,” 296.

55 Sevinc, Participation in Terrorist Organizations, 12.

56 Silberman, “Religious Violence, Terrorism, and Peace,” 532.

57 Spalek, “Radicalisation, De-radicalisation and Counter-radicalisation,” 41.

58 Horgan and Taylor, “A Conceptual Framework,” 587; Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism, 9.

59 Schmid, “The Links,” 47.

60 Spence, “Questioning the Concept,” 14.

61 Wilkenfeld et al., “The Use of Violence.”

62 Ferracuti, “A Sociopsychiatric Interpretation,” 132.

63 Ibid., 134.

64 Koseli, “Poverty, Inequality & Terrorism.”

65 Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks; Horgan, Individual Disengagement, 19; Stern and Amit, Producing Terror.

66 Vold, Bernard, and Snipes, Theoretical Criminology.

67 Akers et al., “Social Learning,” 641.

68 Agnew, “Social Control Theory,” 48; Akers et al., “Social Learning,” 642; Akers and Lee, “A Longitudinal Test,” 319; Liska and Reed, “Ties,” 551.

69 Agnew, “A Longitudinal Test,” 129; Akers and Lee, “A Longitudinal Test,” 325; Matsueda and Anderson, “The Dynamics,” 275; Matsueda and Heimer, “Race, Family Structure, and Delinquency,” 827.

70 Borum, “Psychology of Terrorism,” 15.

71 Hirschi, “A Control Theory,” 289–305.

72 Akers and Jennings, The Social Learning Theory, 103–20.

73 Ibid.

74 Castello and Vowell, “Testing Control Theory,” 817; Elliott, Suzanne, and Rachelle, “An Integrated Theoretical Perspective,” 3–27; Matsueda and Anderson, “The Dynamics,” 275.

75 Matsueda, “Testing Control Theory,” 491; Agnew, “A Longitudinal Test,” 126–56; Elliott and Menard, “Delinquent Friends,” 28–67.

76 Matsueda and Heimer, “Race, Family Structure, and Delinquency,” 826–40.

77 Agnew, “A Longitudinal Test,” 126–56; Akers and Lee, “A Longitudinal Test,” 317–43; Elliott and Menard, “Delinquent Friends,” 28–67; Matsueda and Anderson, “The Dynamics,” 269–308; Matsueda, “Testing Control Theory,” 489–504.

78 Elliott, Suzanne, and Rachelle, “An Integrated Theoretical Perspective,” 3–27; Matsueda and Heimer, “Race, Family Structure, and Delinquency,” 826–40.

79 Conger, “Social Control,” 17–40.

80 Not to be confused with Lebanese Hezbollah. There is no connection between the two groups.

81 Kurt, “Kurdish Hizbullah in Turkey,” 15; Nugent, “The Defeat of Turkish Hizballah.”

82 This is the reason why members call the TH as ‘cemaãt’ in their own terminology.

83 Kurt, “Kurdish Hizbullah in Turkey,” 19.

84 Cakir, The Reemergence of Hizballah in Turkey, 13.

85 Ibid., 5.

86 Karmon, “Islamic Terrorist Activities,” 104.

87 Unal, “Counterterrorism in Turkey,” 4–9; Unal, “The Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) and Popular Support,” 432–55.

88 Unal, “Counterterrorism in Turkey,” 4–9; Unal, “Is It Ripe Yet?,” 91–125.

89 In the GKK system, Turkish Army trained and armed volunteer villagers to defend themselves against the PKK. GKKs are also provided with a salary.

90 Unal, “Strategist or Pragmatist,” 422, Unal, “Counterterrorism in Turkey,” 91–125.

91 Unal, “Strategist or Pragmatist,” 419–48.

92 Çiçek, Hangi Hizbullah [Which Hezbollah].

93 Unal, “Counterterrorism in Turkey,” 4.

94 Rodoplu, Arnold, and Ersoy, “Terrorism in Turkey,” 154.

95 Unal, “Counterterrorism in Turkey,” 4.

96 Eligür, The Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey.

97 Rodoplu, Arnold, and Ersoy, “Terrorism in Turkey,” 87.

98 Eligür, The Mobilization of Political Islam, 87.

99 Ibid., 90.

100 Ibid., 85, 102, 135, 277.

101 Balci, “The Mobilization,” 207.

102 Eligür, The Mobilization of Political Islam, 90–2.

103 Ibid., 94–5.

104 Simsek, “New Social Movements,” 121.

105 Eligür, The Mobilization of Political Islam, 94.

106 Nugent, “The Defeat of Turkish Hizballah.”

107 Bulut and Faraç, Kod Adı: Hizbullah.

108 Cakir, The Reemergence of Hizballah in Turkey, 11.

109 Farac, Batman’dan Beykoz’a; Çakir, “Derin Hizbullah.”

110 Sozen, “Terrorism,” 138.

111 Nugent, “The Defeat of Turkish Hizballah.”

112 Ibid.

113 Kurt, “Kurdish Hizbullah in Turkey,” 21.

114 Ibid., 22.

115 Ibid., 28.

116 Aras and Bacik, “The Mystery of Turkish Hizballah,” 152.

117 Aras and Bacik, “The Mystery of Turkish Hizballah,” 149; Sozen, “Terrorism,” 139.

118 Cakir, The Reemergence of Hizballah in Turkey; Farac, Batman’dan Beykoz’a.

119 Orttung and Makarychev, “National Counter-terrorism Strategies,” 61.

120 Stern, Terror in the Name of God, 87.

121 Aras and Bacik, “The Mystery of Turkish Hizballah,” 149–51.

122 Çiçek, Hangi Hizbullah [Which Hezbollah].

123 Sevinc, Participation in Terrorist Organizations, 34.

124 Nugent, “The Defeat of Turkish Hizballah.”

125 Timeturk, HUDA-PAR’in bagimsizlari ne kadar oy aldi? http://www.timeturk.com/huda-par-in-bagimsizlari-ne-kadar-oy-aldi/haber-11971.

126 First circle peers refer to one’s closest friends in his/her development into adolescence.

127 Rink and Sharma, “The Determinants of Religious Radicalization.”

128 Spalek, “Radicalisation, De-radicalisation, and Counter-radicalization,” 42.

129 Wali, Radicalism Unveiled.

130 Gibbs, “Conceptualization of Terrorism,” 329–40.

131 McGlynn and McDaid, “Radicalisation and Higher Education,” 7.

132 Spalek, “Radicalisation, De-radicalisation and Counter-radicalisation,” 42; Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks.

133 Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks; Horgan, “Deradicalization or Disengagement,” 292; Stern and Amit, Producing Terror.

134 Silberman, Religious Violence, Terrorism, and Peace, 532.

135 Sevinc, Participation in Terrorist Organizations.

136 Two outsider researchers acted as inter raters for reliability tests and coding results indicated no major difference.

137 All relevant preliminary test details on the regression analysis can be shared to interested readers.

138 Chi-square test results for all cross-tabulation analyses indicated direct relationship between both variables at the p = .000 significance level.

139 Wuchte and Mehdi, “Countering Violent Extremism,” 78; Morris et al., “Deradicalization,” 3; Borum, “Radicalization into Violent Extremism,” 15; King and Taylor, “The Radicalization of Homegrown Jihadists,” 608.

140 Brady, Schlozman, and Verba, “Prospecting for Participants,” 156; Crenshaw, “The Psychology of Terrorism,” 411; Brown and Saeed, “Radicalization and Counter-radicalization,” 152–96.

141 Brown and Saeed, “Radicalization and Counter-radicalization,” 154.

142 Wali, Radicalism Unveiled.

143 Aly and Striegher, “Examining the Role,” 850; Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks; Horgan, “Deradicalization or Disengagement,” 292; Stern and Amit, Producing Terror.

144 Gibbs, Conceptualization of Terrorism, 330.

145 Booth, Farrell, and Varano, “Social Control, Serious Delinquency, and Risky Behavior,” 425.

146 Britt and Gottfredson, Control Theories of Crime and Delinquency.

147 Hirschi, “A Control Theory of Delinquency,” 289–305.

148 See note 66 above.

149 Kayaoğlu, Terrorism and Strain.

150 Hirschi, “A Control Theory of Delinquency,” 289–305.

151 See note 66 above.

152 Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill, Principles of Criminology.

153 Oots and Wiegele, “Terrorist and Victim,” 3.

154 Akers, “Deviant Behavior.”

155 Sevinc and Ciftci, Terrorism, Turkey, Europe, and America.

156 Akers and Jennings, The Social Learning Theory of Crime and Deviance, 105.