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ABSTRACT
This article examines building of the Seyhan Dam (1953–1956) in Turkey. Both Turkish and American agents played significant roles for planning and implementation of the project during the Cold War era. The 1950s provided necessary conditions in Turkey for the rise of new actors and developments to facilitate transition from limited modernity, which had mostly manifested in urban areas, to a more comprehensive state of modernity extended to rural areas. This extension had irrevocable impacts on the natural landscape as well. By referring to some patterns of modernization, this article posits building of the Seyhan Dam as a significant example to demonstrate how state-led modernization extended its scope by means of taming rivers and opening of plains for agriculture in the Cilician (Çukurova) region from late Ottoman to Republican periods.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 “Where History Walked” The Em Kayan 14, no. 10 (December 1955): 3. The Em Kayan was a magazine published by Morrison Knudsen and is archived at Boise State University.
2 In the architectural literature, the only exception is the Çubuk Dam, which was completed in 1936 to provide potable water for the growing new capital, Ankara. It was demonstrated as a material manifestation of modernity by means of the social facilities built nearby the dam and appropriation of the natural landscape as a public park for recreation. See Bozdoğan, Modernism and Nation Building, 120.
3 Öktem, “When Dams Are Built on Shaky Grounds,” and Dissard, “From Shining Icons.”
4 Stahl, “The Keban Dam Project.”
5 Ünsal Gülmez, “Ege Taşrasında Modern’in Mitleşmesi,” and Ünsal Gülmez, “Barajda Barınmak.”
6 Kezer, “Spatializing Difference.”
7 Berman, All That is Solid, 93.
8 Harvey, Condition of Postmodernity, 111.
9 Blackbourn, The Conquest of Nature, 18–19.
10 Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey, 53.
11 Coscrove, “An Elemental Division,” 574–583.
12 Swyngedouw, “Power, Nature and the City,” 311–312.
13 McCully, Silenced Rivers, 241.
14 Radkau, Nature and Power, 256.
15 Swyngedouw and Kaika, “The Environment of the City,” 571.
16 Robertson, “Cold War landscapes,” 429.
17 Wilson, “Machine-Age Iconography,” 465.
18 Berman, All that is Solid, 300–301.
19 Another rural development institution, namely the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), was founded after the Great Depression in 1933. Its success stimulated foundation of similar agencies at global scale. For instance, based on TVA model, HAVA was founded in Helmand Valley project of Afghanistan. For a detailed investigation of the projects and American intervention in the region, see Cullather, “Damming Afghanistan,” and Radkau, Nature and Power, 257. Tucker’s article is informative to understand popularisation of TVA model at global scale. Tucker, “Containing Communism.”
20 McCully, Silenced Rivers, 2–3.
21 Wilson, “Machine-Age Iconography,” 466–467.
22 Ibid., 476, 478–479.
23 Nafia Bakanlığı Sular U. M. Fen Heyeti “Çubuk Barajı,” 275–282. For architectural implications, see Bozdogan, Modernism and Nation Building, 120.
24 Kaika, “Dams as Symbols of Modernization,” 278, 296.
25 Tucker, “Containing Communism,” 142.
26 Adas, Dominance by Design, 207.
27 Khagram, Dams and Development, 7.
28 Coscrove, “An Elemental Division,” 8 and Radkau, Nature and Power, 257.
29 For Anti-dam movements, see Van Huizen, “Building a Green Dam,” 421, 436; McCully, Silenced Rivers, 29–64; Khagram, Dams and Development, 3–5; and Cummings, Dam the Rivers, 20–33.
30 The challenge to nature by means of building dams has been one of the popular themes in many publications. Among them see Sneddon, Concrete Revolution, 2–3; Steinberg, “That World's Fair Feeling,” 401; and McCully, Silenced Rivers, 1.
31 McCully, Silenced Rivers, 237.
32 For a short history of damming the rivers, see McCully, Silenced Rivers, 12–23.
33 Cullather, “Damming Afghanistan,” 520.
34 Ibid., 522.
35 Schayegh, “Iran’s Karaj Dam Affair,” 612–643.
36 For a detailed discussion on the construction of the Aswan Dam, see Tucker, “Containing Communism,” 145–148; Robertson, “Cold War landscapes,” 430; and McCully, Silenced Rivers, 238–239.
37 Presidential Archives of Turkey Ottoman Archive Section (OA hereafter), Y.MTV. 300/68 (June 25, 1907).
38 OA, BEO, 3627/272011 (August 30, 1909). The petition was sent by Francis Deconson & Co. who was residing in London at that time.
39 Tanoğlu, “Türkiye’de Büyük Su İşlerinin,” 296.
40 The full text of the Truman Doctrine was published in Armaoğlu, Belgelerle Türk-Amerikan, 152–157.
41 Two of these export reports were drafted by Thornburg and Barker, which were also published and became available for public. See Thornburg, Turkey and Economic Appraisal, and Barker, The Economy of Turkey.
42 Barker, The Economy of Turkey, 18–20, and Keyder, State and Class in Turkey, 119.
43 “M.Arası Bankasının Yıllık Konferansı Açıldı” (Yeni Sabah, September 14, 1949). Also, Onaran, “Milletlerarasi Kalkınma Bankasindan,” 254.
44 “Where History Walked” The Em Kayan 14, no.10 (December 1955), 4 and İşmen, “Seyhan Hidroelektrik Tesisleri,” 12.
45 “Haberler” Arkitekt, no. 249–252 (1952), 159, and İşmen, “Seyhan Hidroelektrik Tesisleri,” 11.
46 Thornburg, Turkey and Economic Appraisal, 217–222.
47 Presidential Archives of Turkey Republican Archive Section (RA hereafter), 30-01-0-0/88-551-1 (August 1951).
48 “Turkey Names Engineers: Selects Frederic R. Harris For Hydraulic Power” (New York Times, September 2, 1950).
49 (RA) 30-18-1-2/128-18-10 (March 7, 1952).
50 “World Bank Loan Agreement: Legal ISC Files, Turkey – Seyhan Project : Loan 0063.”
51 Ibid., 12.
52 “Seyhan barajının finansmanı için Milletlerarası İmar ve Kalkınma Bankası ile akdedilen 18 Haziran 1952 tarihli Anlaşma ve Eklerinin onanması hakkında kanun tasarısı ve Geçici Komisyon Raporu”. TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, 9th Term, 3rd Legislation Year, Vol. 16 (June 20, 1952): 373–376.
53 “Haberler” Arkitekt, no. 249–252. (1952), 158.
54 “World Bank, “Turkey – Seyhan River Multipurpose Project (English).”
55 “Seyhan Barajı Hidroelektrik santralinde enerji üretilmesi, bunun istihlâk merkezlerine nakli ve toptan satışına dair imtiyaz Sözleşmesi” Cabinet Decision no. 4/1017 (June 25, 1953) Resmi Gazete, no.8563: (November 21, 1953), 7622–7624.
56 “U. S. Concern Gets Turkish Dam Job: Morrison – Knudsen Awarded” (New York Times, Jul 6, 1953). The New York Times underlined financial interest of local people as:
In a country where state direction and operation of basic industries has been accepted for more than a generation, the Seyhan development is an interesting illustration of the extent to which United States ideas of equity financing have taken hold even in a project to which United States aid has not made any direct contribution.
57 Tanyeli, “1950’lerden Bu Yana,” 238–239.
58 Wilson, Beyond Anıtkabir, 89.
59 Aslanoğlu, Erken Cumhuriyet Dönemi, 283–285.
60 Orhon, “Hirfanlı Barajı ve Hidroelektrik Tesisleri,” 40.
61 Yavaş, “Demirköprü Barajı Tesisleri,” 22.
62 Buldam, “Sarıyar Barajı,” 14.
63 Similar to General Directorate of State Highways (KGM), DSİ was structured by following their American precedent and the first technical documents were adapted by the foreign consultants. See Ünsal, İnşaatçıların Tarihi, 104–105.
64 Üsdiken, “Transferring American Models,” 316–330.
65 “Muayyen ve Muvakkat Müddetli Hizmetlerde Çalışacak Yevmiyeli Personel Yönetmeliği” Cabinet Decision no 4/10195. (April 15, 1958). The regulation was amended and updated several times in the following years.
66 Ural and Ungan, Large Dams in Turkey, 53. See also (RA) 30-1-0-0/74-467-10 (March 27, 1948). This file reports the interest of International Morrison-Knudsen Inc.’s interest for project development along with TAMS. The drafters of the report recommended Morrison-Knudsen for the project development due to their prior experience and reliability in similar projects.
67 İşmen, “Seyhan Hidroelektrik Tesisleri,” 11 and “Where History Walked,” 4.
68 Wilson, “Machine-Age Iconography,” 471.
69 For its foundation and early projects of Morrison Knudsen Inc., see. Wilson and Taylor, The Earth Changers, 35–37.
70 “Builders Abroad: Ambassadors with Bulldozers” (Time, May 3, 1954).
71 Garanti Construction was taken over by Koç Holding in 1976 and German Hochtief in 1987 and British Balfour Beatty. The company’s name changed and became Garanti Koza Construction Co. It is still one of the active property developers in Turkey. For a brief account on company profile; see company official website: http://www.garantikoza.com/hakkimizda/. Accessed April 24, 2019.
72 “Seyhan Barajının Temel Atma Töreni Bugün Yapılacak” (Cumhuriyet, October 25, 1953); “Seyhan Barajının İnşaatına Başlandı” (Cumhuriyet, October 26, 1953), and “Seyhan Barajının Temel Atma Töreni Dün Yapıldı” (Milliyet, October 26, 1953).
73 “Refaha Doğru Yeni Bir Adım” (Cumhuriyet, October 26, 1953).
74 Sarpkaya, “Seyhan Barajı,” 49–50.
75 The control and supervision of the construction was handled by experienced engineers: They were B.G. Falkner, Morrison-Garanti’s resident partner and project manager; Harold E. Buckert, a veteran Morrison-Knudsen dam builder; Ali Orhon was resident engineer for the Ministry of Public Works and W.B. Carr was resident engineer for Knapp-Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy, engineering consultant to the ministry. “Seyhan Dam Rises in Modern Turkey” The Em Kayan 13, no. 10 (December 1954), 3–5 and “Where History Walked”, 3–5.
76 “Seyhan Dam at halfway in Turkey” The Em Kayan 14, no. 3 (May 1955), 3–5.
77 “Seyhan Dam Embarkment Topped out in Turkey” The Em Kayan 15, no. 2 (April 1956), 16–17. Moreover, Ural and Ungan reported that steel penstocks and surge tanks were manufactured and erected by Voest of Austria, turbines by Voith of Germany, generators by Siemens of Germany, transformers by Le Material Electrique of France and transmission lines by Elin of Austria. See Ural and Ungan, Large Dams in Turkey, 53.
78 Ural and Ungan, Large Dams in Turkey, 52–53.
79 Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) and its partner Gordon Bunshaft were known for their role in the design of the Hilton Hotel in Istanbul but they were already known by the Turkish government before that. The report was submitted to the Ministry of Public Works in December 1951. This survey had carried out in connection with the Technical Assistance Program of the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA). The objective was to report to the Ministry of Public Works of the Republic of Turkey on the nature of the problems existing in these fields needing government attention, and to make recommendations for action that could be taken by the government both as to future investigations and appropriate future activities in these fields. Three members of the company, Gordon Bunshaft, G. L. Schmauder and David H. Hughes arrived in Turkey on 22 April 1951, and began work with the officials of the Department of Construction and Planning of the Ministry of Public Works. See Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Construction, Town Planning, 22–23.
80 Tanyeli, “1950’lerden Bu Yana,” 238.
81 World Bank, “Turkey – Seyhan Project,” 14–15.
82 Göle, Mühendisler ve İdeoloji, 9, 84–85.
83 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. Construction, Town Planning, 22–23.
84 Turgut, ed. Süleyman Demirel: Bir Ömür Suyun Peşinde, 24.
85 Turgut, Demirel’in Dünyası, 109.
86 Süleyman Demirel was already familiar with the Seyhan Dam project. He was in Adana in 1951 when the project developer company was conducting site analyses. He studied engineering calculations of Demirköprü, Kemer and Hirfanlı dams in 1953. For his engineering career at DSİ see Turgut, Güniz Sokağı, 41–47 and Turgut, ed. Süleyman Demirel: Bir Ömür Suyun Peşinde, 26–32. When he was in the United States with the Eisenhower Scholarship, he worked in the Bureau of Reclamation and was engaged with Morrison Knudsen Inc. during this period. After return to Turkey, he worked as local representative of this company for a while. After his illustrious rise in politics in a short time, he was frequently called as ‘Morrison Süleyman’ by his opponents to refer to his close relation with American companies and government.
87 “Seyhan Dam Dedication” The Em Kayan 15, no. 4 (June 1956), 27.
88 Some of the headlines are: “Bayar ve Menderes’i Karşılamak Üzere Hummalı Bir Faaliyet Başladı” (Yeni Adana, April 4, 1956); “Bayar ve Menderes’i Karşılamak İçin Hummalı Faaliyet Devam Ediyor” (Yeni Adana, April 6, 1956); “Seyhan Barajının Açılış Töreni Yarın Yapılacak; Tören için Sarfedilen Yüzbinlerce Lira Halkımız Arasında Üzüntü Yarattı.” (Yeni Adana, April 7, 1956); and “Seyhan Barajı Dün Büyük Bir Törenle Açıldı: Menderes Belediye Önünde Yaptığı Konuşmada Muhalefet ve Basına Mutad Hücumlarda Bulundu.” (Yeni Adana, April 9, 1956).
89 Some of the headlines were “İktidar’ın Hamleleri Semere Vermeye Başladı: Seyhan Barajı ve Birecik Köprüsü Nisan Başında Hizmete Girecek” (Vatandaş, March 24, 1956); “Demokrat İktidarın Eserleri Hizmete Girmeye Başlamıştır”, “Önümüzdeki On Gün İçinde Birçok Tesisin Açılışı Yapılacak” (Vatandaş, March 31, 1956); “Memleketimiz Çukurova’nın Büyük Gününe Hazırlanıyor: Mebuslarımızın Büyük Eseri Görebilmeleri İçin Meclis Tatil Yaptı.” (Vatandaş, April 5, 1956); “Adana Tarihi Güne Yaklaşmanın Sevinci İçinde Yüzüyor” (Vatandaş, April 6, 1956); “Seyhan Barajı ve Santrali Memleketimize Hayırlı Olsun” “Türkiye Muazzam Bir İktisadi Kalkınma İçinde Bulunuyor” (Vatandaş, April 8, 1956); and “Çukurova Dün İki Bayramı Birden Kutladı” (Vatandaş, April 9, 1956).
90 “President’s Memo: 60,000 attend Turkish Dam Celebration” The Em Kayan 15, no. 3 (May 1956), 1, and “Seyhan Barajı Dün Büyük Törenle Açıldı” (Cumhuriyet, April 9, 1956).
91 “Seyhan Barajı Bugün Açılıyor” (Milliyet, April 8, 1956); “Seyhan Barajı Muazzam Bir Törenle Açıldı” (Milliyet, April 9, 1956); and “Seyhan Barajı Dün Büyük Törenle Açıldı” (Cumhuriyet, April 9, 1956).
92 Keznep Kezer’s article focuses on early republican period developments in Munzur Valley of Turkey, which exemplifies a remarkable case that demonstrates the dominance of human intervention over the nature by means of implementing comprehensive public works projects by the modern state apparatus. See Kezer, “Spatializing Difference,” 507–527.
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Ahmet Erdem Tozoglu
Dr Ahmet Erdem Tozoğlu received his B.A degree from Bilkent University in 2005 and his M.A degree from Middle East Technical University (METU) in 2007. He received his PhD degree from METU’s Architectural History program in 2013 with his dissertation titled ‘Actors of Change: Railway Projects and Urban Architecture of Balkan Cities in the Late Ottoman Period’. He was granted an ARIT (American Research Institute in Turkey) Fellowship (2011) and TUBITAK fellowship (2007–2012) for his PhD research. He has been working in Abdullah Gul University’s Faculty of Architecture since 2014. He received a TUBITAK international post-doctoral research scholarship to conduct a research project at the University of Chicago for 2018–2019 academic year. He is the author of many articles, book chapters and conference papers.