https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8435-6682
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ABSTRACT
This article explores the general characteristics of Turkey’s foreign policy in long durée by introducing the concept of a modified middle power. It argues that its historical legacy, the ambiguity of its regional belonging, and its real and constructed pivotal geography have modified Turkey’s ‘middlepowerness’ and led to its in-betweenness. As such, the Turkish Republic, in its 100 years of history, has developed different strategies that aim to both remedy and sustain this in-betweenness. It is argued that this characteristic has been Turkey’s contribution to global politics. Yet, during the AKP rule, especially since the 2010s, Turkey’s in-betweenness has been undermined, ultimately weakening Turkey’s position and role.
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Notes
1 Barlas, “Turkish Diplomacy.”
2 Teo, “Toward a differentiation-based framework.”
3 In pointing to Turkey’s modified middlepowerness, this article does not argue for Turkey’s uniqueness or exceptionalism. There are other countries that experience challenges of their post-imperial historical legacy, fluid regional identity, and sitting in pivotal geographies. This article claims that Turkey is one of them and these characteristics provide opportunities and challenges, thus a matrix of alternatives to such countries’ policy makers.
4 The issue of being an heir to the Ottoman Empire is also an in-between position for Turkey. Even for the Kemalists that generally approach to that heritage more critically, there is an ambiguous position on the issue.
5 The concept of Sevres Syndrome emerged in the 1990s to refer to the fear in Turkey that exists among some policy makers and also public at large that the Sevres Agreement, which was signed after the defeat in World War 1 and envisioned partitioning the remaining territories of the Ottoman Empire to establish several states but was never actually implemented due to Turkey’s victory in its War of Independence, could be alive and well. Such a view of history not only perpetuates constant fear of external and internal enemies, but also the ‘suspicions about the Western powers’ despite Turkey’s alignment with them.
6 Bora, Türk Sağının Üç Hali, 17.
7 Zarakol, After Defeat, 143.
8 This is a mutually reinforcing process and has been strengthened in interaction with otherization of Turkey (especially by European countries) as well.
9 Hintz, “‘Take it outside!’,” 332.
10 Palabiyik, “Politicization.”
11 Yanık, “The Metamorphosis.”
12 Altunışık, “Geopolitical Representation.”
13 Robins, “Introduction.”
14 Chan, “Taiwan,” 168.
15 Ibid., 181.
16 This perspective was particularly strongly advocated by Ahmet Davutoğlu who served as a foreign policy advisor from 2003 to 2009, Foreign Minister from 2009 to 2014, and Prime Minister from 2014 to 2016 in various AKP governments. See Altunışık, “Worldviews.”
17 Altunışık, “Geopolitical Representation.”
18 Aras and Karakaya Polat, “Turkey and the Middle East.”
19 Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy, 54.
20 Criss, “Turkey’s Foreign Policies.”
21 Barlas, “Turkish Diplomacy.” See also note 1 above.
22 Oran, ed., Türk Dış Politikası, 385.
23 Gülmez, “Turkish Foreign Policy.”
24 Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy.
25 Jentleson, “The Middle East Multilateral Arms.”
26 Altunışık, “The Role of Turkey,” 211.
27 Altunışık, “Geopolitical Representation,” 36–9.
28 Kutlay and Öniş, “Turkish Foreign Policy.”
29 Atmaca and Torun, “Geopolitical Visions.”
30 Deringil, “The Turks,” 720.
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Notes on contributors
Meliha Benli Altunışık
Meliha Benli Altunışık is a Professor in the Department of International Relations at Middle East Technical University (METU) in Ankara. She has written extensively on international relations of the Middle East and Turkey’s foreign policy. She is the author (with Özlem Tür) of Turkey: Challenges of Continuity and Change (Routledge 2005). Her articles have appeared in many international journals, including Security Dialogue, Mediterranean Politics, Journal of Historical Sociology, and Turkish Studies. Some of her recent publications focus on cusp states, rentier state theory, humanitarian diplomacy, regional powers, regional rivalries, and regionalism related to the Middle East and Turkey.