By Cross and Sword: ‘Clerical Fascism’ in Interwar Western Ukraine

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Notes

1. Here – for the sake of conciseness – by ‘western Ukraine’ we imply former Polish territories with a dominant Ukrainian population, namely Eastern Galicia and Volyn, which were annexed by the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic after 1939, and later became an integral part of independent Ukraine.

2. For Sturzo’s 1924 interview with La Stampa, see Pietro Scoppola, La Chiesa e il Fascismo (Bari: Editori Laterza, 1971), pp.88–96.

3. Politologicheskiy slovar (Moscow: Lutch, 1994), Vol. I, p.96.

4. Volodymyr P. Gorbatenko, ed., Politologichny entsyklopedychny slovnyk (Kiev: Geneza, 2004), p.259.

5. Benjamin Beit‐Hallahmi, “The Return of Martyrdom: Honour, Death and Immortality”, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 4/3 (2003), p.19.

6. Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London: Routledge, 1993), pp.38–9.

7. Roger Eatwell, “Reflections on Fascism and Religion”, in Leonard Weinberg, ed., Religious Fundamentalism and Political Extremism (London: Routledge, 2004), pp.152–3.

8. Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: UCP, 1994), p.40.

9. Dick Anthony, Thomas Robbins and Steven Barrie‐Anthony, “Cult and Anticult Totalism: Reciprocal Escalation and Violence”, Terrorism and Political Violence, 14/1 (2002), pp.214, 216.

10. Juergensmeyer (note 8), p.160.

11. Dick Anthony and Thomas Robbins, “Religious Totalism, Violence and Exemplary Dualism: Beyond the Extrinsic Model”, in Michael Barkun, ed., Millennialism and Violence (London: Routledge, 1996), p.25.

12. See, for example Mircea Eliade, Cosmos and History: The Myth of the Eternal Return, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954); and his The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World Inc., 1957).

13. Hugh Trevor‐Roper, “The Phenomenon of Fascism”, in Stuart Woolf, ed., Fascism in Europe (London: Methuen, 1981), pp.26–7.

14. Eatwell (note 7), p.146.

15. Rozbudova natsiyi 3–4 (1929), cited in Petro Mirchuk, Narysistorii OUN (Munich: Ukrayinske vydavnytstvo, 1968), Vol. I, p.94.

16. Alexander J. Motyl, The Turn to the Right: The Ideological Origins and Development of Ukrainian Nationalism, 1919–1929 (New York: East European Monographs, 1980), p.146.

17. Cited in ibid., p.148.

18. Mirchuk (note 15), p.92.

19. Oleg Bagan, “Pomizh mistykoyu i politykoyu”, in Dmytro Dontsov, Tvory (Lvov: Kavalriya, 2001), Vol. I, p.45.

20. Dmytro Dontsov, Dukh nashoyi davnyny (Drogobych: “Vidrodzhennya”, 1991), p.308.

21. Oleksandr Zaytsev, “Fashysm i ukrayinsky natsionalizm (1920–1930s)”, Nezalezhny chasopys ‘Yi’, 16 (2000), p.93.

22. Andrew Wilson, “Ukraine: Between Eurasia and the West”, in Seamus Dunn, Thomas Grant Fraser, eds, Europe and Ethnicity: The First World War and Contemporary Ethnic Conflict (London: Routledge, 1996), p.122.

23. See Dmytro Dontsov, “Doba religiynykh viyn”, Vistnyk (1937).

24. Dmytro Dontsov, “Natsionalizm i fariseyi‐’gumanisty’”, Vistnyk (1937), cited in Bagan (note 19), p.52.

25. Mirchuk (note 15), p.130.

26. See Dmytro Dontsov, “Orden – ne partiya”, Vistnyk (1938).

27. See Dmytro Dontsov, “Tserkva i natsionalizm”, Literaturno‐naukovy vistnyk, 5–6 (1924), pp.75–82.

28. Maksym Orlyk, Ideya i chyn Ukrayiny (Kiev: Ukrayinska vydavnycha spilka, 2001), p.156.

29. Stepan’s father, Andriy Bandera, himself was a member of the UMO and OUN. See Mykola Posivnych, ed., Varshavsky akt obvynuvachennya Stepana Bandery ta tovaryshiv (Lvov: Vydavnytstvo “Ms”, 2005), p.173.

30. Stepan Bandera, “Ukrayinsky natsionalizm i religiya”, Perspektyvy Ukrayinskoyi Revolyutsiyi (Drogobych: Vidrodzhennya, 1998), p.323.

31. Andriy Sheptytsky, Tserkva i tserkovna yednist. Dokumenty i materialy 1899–1944 (Lvov: Svichado, 1995), Vol. I, pp.130–31.

32. Oleksandr Y. Lysenko, “Religiyne pytannya u teoriyi ta praktytsi ukrayinskogo natsionalizmu v pershiy polovini XX st.”, Ukrayinsky istorychny zhurnal, 6 (2000), p.33.

33. Mirchuk (note 15), p.99.

34. See Ronald Robertson, The Eastern Christian Churches: A Brief Survey (Rome: Edizioni Orientalia Christiana, 1999) for a concise historical overview. Being a fruit of the 1596 Union of Brest, the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church has many popular names, including the Uniate, Ruthenian Catholic and Ukrainian Catholic Church. In this paper we refer to the adherents of this Church as Greek Catholics, as this is the official title nowadays. However, as the Greek Catholics adhere to major Catholic doctrines, they sometimes refer to themselves simply as Catholics.

35. Yosafat‐Ivan Skruten, “Apostol uniyi”, Almanakh ukrayinskykh bogosloviv (Lvov: n.p., 1923), p.19.

36. It is worth mentioning that the UMO’s most notorious act of terrorism – an abortive attempt to assassinate the Polish President Stanislaw Wojciechowski – was carried out by Teofil Olshanskyi, the son of a Greek Catholic priest. See Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947 (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, 1997), p.197.

37. See Vladislav I. Petrushko, “Deyatelnost uniatskogo mitropolita Andreya Sheptitskogo po rasprostraneniyu katolitsizma vostochnogo obryada v Rossii v period mezhdu revolyutsiey 1905 g. i Pervoy mirovoy voynoy”, in Ezhegodnaya Bogoslovskaya konferentsiya Pravoslavnogo Svyato‐Tikhonovskogo Bogoslovskogo instituta: Materialy (Moscow: n.p., 2000), pp.364–73.

38. Cited in Oleksandr I. Utkin, “Lvivsky tserkovny sobor 1946 r. v konteksti togochasnykh politychnykh realiy”, Ukrayinsky istorichny zhurnal, 5 (1998), p.106.

39. On the OUN’s terrorist activities, see Yuriy A. Kyrychuk, “Teror i teroryzm u Zakhidniy Ukrayini”, in Valeriy A. Smoliy, ed., Politychny teror i teroryzm v Ukrayini, XIX–XX st.: Istorychni narysy (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 2002), pp.548–95.

40. Piotrowski (note 36), p.358.

41. Utkin (note 38), p.106.

42. “Yevgen Onatsky’s letter to Lvov UGC Bishop Ivan Buchko”, in D.Y. Yaremchuk, ed., Pravda pro uniyu: Dokumenty i materialy (Lvov: Kamenyar, 1981), p.215.

43. Meta, 14/VIII (1938), cited in Ivan I. Migovich, Prestupny alyans. O soyuze uniatskoy tserkvi i ukrainskogo burzhuaznogo natsionalizma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1985), p.33.

44. Vitaliy O. Pereveziy, Sluzhinnya Bogu i narodu: Ukrayinska greko‐katolytska tserkva mizh dvoma svitovymy viynamy (Kiev: Svitoglyad, 2004), p.42.

45. Mykhaylo F. Moskalyuk, Ukrayinsky khrystyyansko‐suspilny rukh u Galychyny (1920–1929 rr.) (unpublished doctoral thesis, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine: Kiev, 1999).

46. Nova zorya, 85 (30 October 1930), p.3.

47. Cited in Yaremchuk (note 42), p.251.

48. See “Z zhyttya ‘Orliv’”, Ukrayinske yunatstvo, 1 (1939).

49. The Trial of German Major War Criminals: Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1946), Vol. VI, p.252. On the OUN’s cooperation with the Abwehr, see Oleksandr Kucheruk, Ryko Yary – zagadka OUN (Lvov: Piramida, 2005).

50. Borys Savchuk, “Mytropolyt Sheptytsky i ‘Plast’”, in Vitaliy Kononenko, ed., Spadshchina Mytropolyta Andreya Sheptytskogo v natsionalnomu y dukhovnomy vidrodzhenni Ukrayiny (Ivano‐Frankovsk: Play, 2000), p. 108.

51. Motyl (note 16), p.140.

52. Anatoliy V. Kentiy, Narysy istoriyi organizatsiyi ukrayinskikh natsionalistiv (1929–1941 rr.) (Kiev: Akademiya nauk Ukrayiny, 1998), p.30.

53. Pereveziy (note 44), p.44.

54. Grygoriy Khomyshyn, Ukrayinska problema (Stanislav: n.p., 1931), p.155.

55. Pereveziy (note 44), p.45.

56. See Yaremchuk (note 42), pp.214–5.

57. “Poslannya mytropolyta A. Sheptytskogo 3 serpnya 1936 r.”, in Yaremchuk (note 42), p.270.

58. Yaremchuk (note 42), pp.250–1.

59. Meta, 31 (12 August 1934), pp.1–2.

60. Ivan Lysyak‐Rudnytsky, Istorychni ese (Kiev: Osnovy, 1994), Vol. II, p.573.

61. Mirchuk (note 15), p.342.

62. Andriy Sheptytsky, “Ukrayinsky katolytsky soyuz i polityka”, Meta 14 (17 April 1932).

63. Shimon Redlich, “Metropolitan Andrii Sheptyts’kyi and the Complexities of Ukrainian‐Jewish Relations”, in Zvi Gitelman, ed., Bitter Legacy: Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), p.65.

64. Mykola Konrad, Natsionalizm i Katolytsyzm (Ivano‐Frankovsk: Gran, 2003), p.13.

65. Gabriel N. Finder, Alexander V. Prusin, “Collaboration in Eastern Galicia: The Ukrainian police and the Holocaust”, East European Jewish Affairs, 34/2 (2004), p.95–96.

66. See David Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1990).

67. See Righteous Among the Nations – Statistics and Stories, http://www1.yadvashem.org/righteous/righteous_table.html (last accessed 3 July 2006).

68. Pereveziy (note 44), p.45; Yaremchuk (note 42), p.279.

69. Yaremchuk (note 42), pp.250–1.

70. Ibid., p.279.

71. Ibid., pp.279, 282.

72. Nova Zorya, 64 (1934), cited in Volodymyr Mykytyuk, “Ukrayinska katolytska krytyka mizhvoyennogo dvadtsyatylittya”, Literaturoznavchi ta istorychni studiyi (2002), p.259.

73. Kostyantyn Chekhovych, Geneza i sut natsionalizmu (Lvov: n.p., 1939), pp. 29–30.

74. Konrad (note 64), pp.14–5.

75. Ibid., p.26.

76. Ibid., p.23.

77. Ibid., pp.24, 37.

78. Neither “clerical fascists”, nor the OUN ever came to power. The OUN, and its military division known as the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UIA), had been unsuccessfully resisting the Soviet rule until the early 1950s, while the UGCC ceased to exist even earlier, as in 1946 the Soviet authorities forced some of the UGC clergy to call a synod that decided to dissolve the Church. In his letter to the Vatican Metropolitan Sheptytsky’s brother, archimandrite Klymentiy Sheptytsky wrote that the destruction of the UGCC was accounted for by the mass participation of the UGC clergy in the activities of the OUN‐UIA (Ulyana Koshetar, Ukrayinska greko‐katolytska tserkva v suspilno‐politychnomu zhytti Galychyny [1900–1939 rr.] [Kiev: MAUP, 2005], p.35.). Actually, after 1946 the UGCC went underground and remained illegal until 1989 when it was officially re‐established.