Legislating Security: Drilling Down the Concepts of ‘National Defence’ and ‘National Security’ in Brazil (1900–1945)

Abstract

This article examines the traditional conceptions of security and defence in Brazil. It does so by investigating their introduction in the political and legal vocabulary in Brazilian legislation. It further explores these terms as part of a project of militarization of the state and society which peaked during the Estado Novo dictatorship (1937–1945). Legislative sources and political writings of the time are thus used to corroborate the historical analysis and two main arguments: (1) conceptual innovations introduced in legislation allowed the armed forces to establish its monopoly over specific policy areas and, later, (2) to legally exercise control over civilian life. As such, it highlights the early relationship established between Brazilianess and development and argues that speaking security enabled authoritarian sectors to put forward their own project of development.

Notes

1 See, for example, A. Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone (Princeton UP 1988); W. Bacchus, Mission in Mufti: Brazil’s Military Regimes, 1964--1985, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1990); F. Hagopian, ‘Democracy by Undemocratic Means? Elites, Political pacts and Regime Transition in Brazil’, Comparative Political Studies 23/2 (1990) pp.147--70; F. Hagopian, Traditional Politics and Regime Change in Brazil (Cambridge: CUP, 1996); M. Huggins, ‘Legacies of Authoritarianism: Brazilian Torturers’ and Murderers’ Reformulation of Memory’, Latin American Perspectives 27/2 (2000), pp.57--78; P. Silva (ed.), The Soldier and the State in Latin America: Essays in Civil-Military Relations (Chippenham, UK: Palgrave 2001); A. Pereira, Political (In) Justice: Authoritarianism and the Rule of Law in Latin America (Univ. of Pittsburg Press 2005); B. Cowan, ‘Sex and the Security State: Gender, Sexuality, and “Subversion” at Brazil’s Escola Superior de Guerra, 1964--1985’, Journal of the History of Sexuality 16/3 (2007) pp.459--81; J. Green, We Cannot Remain Silent: Opposition to the Brazilian Military Dictatorship in the Ulnited States (Durham, NC: Duke UP 2010).

2 See, for example, F. McCann, ‘The Brazilian Army and the Problem of a Mission’, Journal of Latin American Studies 12 (1980) pp.107--26; J. Carvalho, ‘Armed Forces and Politics in Brazil, 1930--45,’ Hispanic American Historical Review 62/2 (1982) pp.193--223; J. Carvalho, Forças Armadas e Política no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Zahar 2005); E. Coelho, Em Busca da Identidade: O Exército e a Política na Sociedade Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Record 2005); J. Markoff and S. Baretta, ‘Professional Ideology and Military Activism in Brazil: A Critique of a Thesis by Alfred Stepan’, Comparative Politics 12/2 (1985) pp.175--91; J. Markoff and S. Baretta, ‘What We Don’t Know About the Coups: Observations on recent South American Politics’, Armed Forces and Society 12/2 (1986a) pp.207--35; J. Markoff and S. Baretta, ‘The Limits of the Brazilian Revolution of 1930’, Review 9/3 (1986b) pp.107--126; and M. Carneiro and B. Kossoy, A Imprensa Confiscada pelo DEOPS 1924--1954 (Rio de Janeiro: Ateliê Editorial 2003).

3 For a discussion of ‘security’ as a essentially or contingently contested concept, see K. Booth, Theory of World Security (Cambridge: CUP), pp.99–100.

4 See K. Booth, Theory of World Security (Cambridge: CUP, 2008), p.150.

5 See ibid. p.155.

6 iSee ibid., p.153.

7 See K. Booth, ‘Security and Self-Reflections of a Fallen Realist’, in K. Krause and M. Williams (eds) Critical Security Studies – Concepts and Cases (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press 1997) pp.110--12 and Booth, World Security ( note 4)) pp.109--11 and Chapter 4.

8 Between the arrival of the Portuguese royal family in Brazil in 1808 and the first decade of the 20th century, the history of the Brazilian armed forces was characterized by the problematic and tense relationship with the regime in power (first, the monarchy and, after 1889, the liberal republic). After the declaration of independence of Brazil, the crown was particularly apprehensive of the republican ideas espoused by the Army -- a feature that was common to the armed forces of other countries in South and Latin America. (See A. Rouquié, El Estado Militar en América Latina (Buenos Aires: Emecé1984) Chapter 2). Even though the armed forces were part of the coalition that established the republican system in the late 19th century, their allies (republican civilians) kept the military at bay from politics after the five-year military dictatorship that followed the establishment of the Republic in 1889. See Carvalho, ‘Armed Forces and Politics’ 195 (note 2) and Markoff and Baretta, ‘Critique’(note 2).

9 See Carvalho, ‘Armed Forces’ (note 2) and F. McCann, ‘The Brazilian General Staff and Brazil’s Military Situation, 1900--1945’, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 25/3 (1983) 299--324.

10 S. Hilton, ‘The Armed Forces and Industrialists in Modern Brazil: The Drive for Military Autonomy, 1889--1954’, The Hispanic American Historic Review 62/4 (1982) p.639.

11 See Hilton, ‘Industrialists’ (note 10) and A. Bellintani, ‘O Exército Brasileiro e a Missão Militar Francesa: Instrução, Doutrina, Organização, Modernidade, e Profissionalismo (1920--1940)’, PhD Thesis, Univ. de Brasília 2009.

12 Carvalho, Forças Armadas e Política (note 2) pp.23--30.

13 At the centre of this activism before the 1920s was the independently published journal A Defeza Nacional (ADN), edited by returnees of the military training mission in Germany. See F. McCann, ‘The Brazilian Army and the Problem of Mission, 1939–1964’, Journal of Latin American Studies 12/1 (1980) pp.107–26; and McCann, ‘The Brazilian General Staff’ (note 9), and F. Nunn, ‘Military Professionalism and Professional Militarism in Brazil, 1870--1970: Historical Perspectives and Political Implications’, Journal of Latin American Studies 4/1 (1972) 29–54). Being an unofficial publication of the armed forces, it provided a space for officers to discuss ‘military innovations, current army affairs, and their dreams for Brazil’s future’ (McCann, ‘The Brazilian General Staff’, note 9, 748). Three years after the establishment of the ADN, the Liga de Defeza Nacional (League of National Defence) established itself as the civilian arm of the journal. It was headed by prominent intellectuals in the country such as Olavo Bilac, Pedro Lessa, Miguel Calmon, and Rui Barbosa. The League promoted the militarization of societal structures and sought to defend the leadership of the armed forces on state reform. It quickly rose to become one of the largest nationalist associations of its time, being responsible for the lobbying and approval of obligatory conscription See Nunn, ‘Military Professionalism’, P. Beattie, The Tribute of Blood: Army, Honor, Race, and Nation in Brazil, 1864--1945 (Durham, NC: Duke UP2001) p.218 and F. McCann, Soldados da Pátria: A História do Exército Brasileiro, 1889/1937 (Rio de Janeiro: Compahia das Letras 2007), 216.

14 See E. Carone, Revoluções do Brasil Contemporâneo (São Paulo: Buriti 1965) p.84; B. Fausto, Revolução de 1930: História e Historiografia (São Paulo: Brasiliense 1988) pp.47--50 and R. Dreifuss, 1964: A Conquista do Estado - Ação Polític, Poder e Golpe de classe (São Paulo: Editora Vozes 2008) p.30.

15 A. Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil (Princeton UP 1971); Carvalho, ‘Armed Forces and Politics’ (note 2); McCAnn, ‘The Brazilian General Staff’(note 9).

16 An example of this was General Pedro Aurélio de Góis Monteiro – the most prolific authoritarian ideologue and military man of the first half of the 20th century in Brazil. He received three promotions in one year in order to qualify to be appointed as the Minister of War and Army Chief of Staff (he served as both) by the end of 1932 (See Carvalho, ‘Armed Forces and Politics’, note, pp.208--10).

17 P. Góes Monteiro, A Revolução de 30 e a Finalidade Política do Exército (Rio de Janeiro: Andersen Editores 1934) p.163.

18 Brasil, ‘Decreto 4.464, de 12 Julho de 1902’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 3006.

19 Brasil, ‘Decreto 979 de 06 Janeiro de 1903’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 138.

20 Brasil, ‘Decreto 9521 de 21 Abril de 1912’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 5127.

21 Brasil, ‘Decreto 7267 de 12 de Maio de 1922’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 20266.

22 Brasil, ‘Decreto 14989 de 10 de Setembro de 1921’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 17869 and Brasil, ‘Decreto 14447 de 19 de Abril de 1922’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 7863.

23 Brasil, ‘Decreto 11498 de 23 Fevereiro 1915’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 2279.

24 Brasil, ‘Decreto 12310 de 13 Fevereiro 1916’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 14161.

25 Brasil, ‘Decreto 176654 de 11 Setembro de 1931’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 12402 and Brasil, ‘Decreto 23454 de 09 Fevereiro de 1932’ Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 19730.

26 In 1921 and 1923, ‘national defence’ first appears in federal decrees (Brasil, ‘Decreto 4354 de 25 de Outubro de 1921’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 19761 and Brasil, ‘Decreto 4629 de 05 de Janeiro de 1923’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 336) but the phrase is limited to the military exercises and the defence of the territory The 1921 decree refers to renovation works in a navy port while the 1923 decree authorizes the number of troops that would engage in military exercises that year.

27 The 1927 decree that created CDN also set that institution to have working cells in each of the ministries with the objective of collecting information to be discussed in CDN meetings. Such institutional arrangements remained in place throughout the Estado Novo and was taken up by the 1964 military dictatorship. (Emphasis in original, see Brasil, ‘Decreto 17999 de 03 de Dezembro de 1927’ Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 25512.)

28 Brasil, ‘Mensagem Apresentada ao Congresso Nacional na Abertura da Primeira Sessão da Décima Terceira Legislatura’, Rio de Janeiro: Presidência da República 1927, p.61.

29 D. Pécaut, Intelectuais e a Política no Brasil: entre o povo e a nação (São Paulo: Editora Ática 1989) p.24.

30 L. Figueiredo, L. Ministério do Silêncio (Rio de Janeiro: Record 2005) p.30.

31 Brasil, ‘Decreto 202467 de 31 de Julho de 1931’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 12402.

32 Brasil, ‘Decreto 21985 de 25 de Outubro de 1932’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 19730.

33 Brasil, ‘Decreto 1058 de 19 de Janeiro de 1939’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 1825.

34 Carvalho, Forças Armadas e Política (note 2) p.61.

35 Nunn, ‘Military Professionalism’ (note 13) pp.40--6.

36 O. Bilac, A Defeza Nacional (Rio de Janeiro: Edição da Liga de Defeza Nacional, 1917) p.8.

37 See, for example: Brasil, ‘Decreto 5389, de 10 de Dezembro de 1904’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 1174; Brasil, ‘Decreto 5478, de 13 de março de 1905’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 98; Brasil, ‘Decreto 5919, de 07 de Março de 1906’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 6536.

38 Coelho, Em Busca da Identidade (note 2) p.105.

39 During this period, he served as Chief of the Military Staff and Minister of War. Together with jurist Francisco Campos, General Góes Monteiro was widely known in the country for being one of the ideologues of authoritarianism, the militarization of the state, and for holding a certain appreciation for the Nazi and Fascist regimes in Europe. In fact, the authoritarian experiences of Portugal, Italy and Germany strengthened his ideas on corporatism and the role of the armed forces in politics. See S. Schwartzman, Bases do Autoritarismo Brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro: Campus 1988) Chapter 6 and B. Fausto, ‘O Estado Novo no Contexto Internacional’, in D. Pandolfi, Repensando o Estado Novo (Rio de Janeiro: FGV 1995) p.10.

40 Góes Monteiro, A Revolução de 30 (note 17) p.125.

41 Ibid. pp.129--35.

42 Ibid. p.201.

43 Brasil, ‘Articles 160--165’, Constituição da República Federativa dos Estados Unidos do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro: Presidência da República, 16 July 1934.

44 Brasil, ‘Article 159’, Constituição da República Federativa dos Estados Unidos do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro: Presidência da República, 16 July 1934.

45 Brasil, ‘Article 166’, Constituição da República Federativa dos Estados Unidos do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro: Presidência da República, 16 July 1934.

46 Brasil, ‘Article 167’, Constituição da República Federativa dos Estados Unidos do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro: Presidência da República, 16 July 1934.

47 Brasil, ‘Decreto 23873 de 15 de Fevereiro de 1934’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) p. 4249.

48 Penalties were from one to ten years of imprisonment and included repeal of military rank, the closing of unions, and censorship of radio and newspapers. See B. Fausto, História Concisa do Brasil (São Paulo: Edusp 2001) pp.196--7 and Brasil, ‘Lei 38 de 04 de Abril de 1935’, Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1 (Brasília: Ministério das Comunicações) 6857.

49 Cases could last no more than ten days between accusation and sentencing. The judges in charge of the tribunal (always two civilian and four military judges) could choose what evidence to consider and were able to prosecute based on their own political convictions. See R. Campos, O Tribunal de Segurança Nacional, 1935--1945 (Rio de Janeiro: Achiamé 1982) p.103 and R. Faoro, Os Donos do Poder (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras 1975)p.340.

50 In Common Law, the writ of mandamus is issued by a superior court to compel lower authorities to perform mandatory and ministerial duties correctly (See B. Garner, Black’s Law Dictionary, St. Paul: West, 2004, p.980).

51 L. Fragoso, Legislação de Segurança Nacional (Rio de Janeiro: Escola Superior de Guerra 1975) p.9.

52 Carvalho, Forças Armadas e Política (note 2) p.52.

53 See, for example, Nunn, ‘Military Professionalism’ (note 13); P. Evans, ‘The Military, the Multinationals and the “Miracle”: The Political Economy of the Brazilian Model of Development’, Studies in Comparative International Development 9/3 (1974) pp.26--45; Hilton, ‘Industrialists’(note 10); and H. Bienen, ‘Armed Forces and National Modernization: Continuing the Debate’, Comparative Politics 16/1 (1974) pp.26--45.

54 McCann, ‘Problem of a Mission’ (note 2) p.115.