The commercialization of celebratory poetry: a critical examination of Zolani Mkiva's post-apartheid praise poetry (izibongo)

Abstract

In post-apartheid South Africa spoken word poetry has emerged as one of the most powerful channels of expression for cultural and political criticism for performing artists (especially the younger ones). The mosaic that composes spoken word poetry is the result of the combination of several poetic languages and sub-genres, such as ‘resistance poetry’, slam poetry, rap, dub poetry, lyrical poetry. Among them izibongo (praise poetry) certainly deserves to be approached with special attention, since it represents one of the most ancient and significant forms of oral expression in the history of Southern African cultures. Presently this traditional form of celebratory poetry survives, thanks to the offerings of performing artists such as imbongi (praise poet) Zolani Mkiva, the most acclaimed contemporary performer of the art of izibongo, and the poet whose artistic activity and public profile are analysed here. This article reconsiders the ongoing process of transformation of praise poetry, it examines how this peculiar kind of poetry is performed and disseminated and the meanings which are produced by its deployment and reception in the cultural and socio-political context of post-apartheid South Africa. The praise poet in this post-colonial, urban, globalized setting is being called upon to function in a number of contested terrains that have yet to be sufficiently considered.

Keywords::

• izibongo
• praise poetry
• South African poetry
• post-apartheid poetry
• spoken word poetry
• Zolani Mkiva

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

^1. As Kaschula observes: ‘There are different kinds of iimbongi. The imbongi attached to chiefs presents only one category. For example, izibongo can be produced about nature and other subjects. The izibongo produced about chiefs, however, are often regarded as the most complex’ (Kaschula 1995, p. 92).

^2. Commenting her 2009 album Ibokwe, Mazwai states: ‘[It] is about ancestral memory. For me it was a moment of surrendering to the voice and experience what it can do. […] Ibokwe was a spiritual journey. It was this spiritual thing that I wanted to engage […] this album is tapping into methods that were cultural’ (Ngobese, 2011).

^3. Mkiva reminds us that the titles in Xhosa tradition are conferred by the leaders of the community, and a 2002 interview to him records that ‘He is reigning Chief executive Officer of the Xhosa Royal Council’ (Kiguli and Brown, 2004, p. 80). Nevertheless, according to some influential Xhosa scholars (Neethling, 2003, p. 200) and the thesis advanced in this article, the idea that Mkiva is the most relevant contemporary imbongi of the Xhosa nation requires further exploration.

^4. ‘Mandela, The Calyx Of Consciousness’, 23 May 1999, http://www.anc.org.za/elections/1999/news/en052406.html (retrieved 20 November 2014).

^5. According to the information in my possession, there is no mention of Mkiva's name in journals and magazines dedicated entirely or partially to spoken word poetry, and written, edited and/or published by fellow poets (Botsotso, BKO, etc.).

^6. See note 4.

^7. The interface between the oral and the written word in Mkiva's poetry is finely addressed by Kaschula (1997). In this article one can also find further examples of Mkiva's poetic repertoire.

^8.http://www.poetryinternationalweb.net/pi/site/poem/item/658 (retrieved 20 November 2014). A slightly different (and equally uninspiring) version of this poem is available in the collection The New Century of South African Poetry (Chapman 2002, 424).

^9. See note 4.

^10. To do justice to Mkiva though, it must be acknowledged that he is not the only poet willing to put his art at disposal of the political class, private companies and corporations. Quite surprisingly in fact, this is a visible trend even within the underground family of South Africa's ‘conscious’ wordsmiths who, mainly due to their chronic lack of financial resources, often accept to take part in well-paid, so-called ‘corporate gigs’ without thoroughly investigating on the moral record of their extemporary ‘employers’.

^11. According to my fieldwork research, there are other young praise poets like Jessica Mbangeni who are fine composers, and whose performing skills outshine the one of the subject of this article. A gifted Xhosa praiser is Bulelani Zantsi, whose poems ‘The clan names of amaBhele’ and ‘Praise-singers of the house of Ntu’ have been published in the anthology In the Heat of Shadows. South African Poetry 1996 – 2013 (Hirson 2014, pp. 79–81). In addition, it must be noted that not all contemporary iimbongi show the obsequious attitude towards powerful people which is the trademark of Mkiva's poetry. As Kaschula explains, among contemporary iimbongi there are examples of ‘voices of protest’ who interpret their traditional role with courageous spirit and admirable abnegation. Among these bards who openly challenge their leaders, Kaschula mentions Qanqule and Melikhaya Mbutuma, two iimbongi who had to face the iron hand of the security forces because of their outspokenness towards political authorities (Kaschula 1995, p. 92).

^12. ‘Unlike other performers, he [Mkiva] will ordinarily have to give careful consideration before participating in an event, and frequently research the topic at hand, maybe prepare a specific framework for a recital’. Retrieved 16 April 2009 from www.royalglobaltoursafrica.com/ExecutiveDirectorsZolaniMkiva.asp (Printed copy available).

^13. Broadcasted on ‘SABC News’, 12.00 edition, 19 April 2009.

^14.http://poetofafrica.com/pictures2.htm (retrieved 20 November 2014). A friendly account of the meeting with Mr Wolfensohn is chronicled in Kiguli and Brown (Kiguli and Brown 2004, pp. 86–87).

^15. The only exception is Oni the Haitian Sensation, a poet with a solid international profile who depicts herself as ‘The Godmother of Canadian slam poetry’, and considers Mkiva ‘her mentor’ (Oni the Haitian Sensation, 2010).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Raphael d'Abdon

Raphael d'Abdon is a scholar, editor, translator and performing poet. In 2013 he published his debut collection of poetry Sunnyside Nightwalk and compiled and edited the collection Marikana. A Moment in Time. He was also one of the featured poets at the 17th Poetry Africa Festival (Durban, 14–19 October 2013). He is currently a Post-doctoral Fellow at the English Studies Department of UNISA.