https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4934-6849
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ABSTRACT
The article analyses the provision of military aid to Ukraine during the first year after the 2022 Russian invasion and explains why it was more effective compared to other examples. It discusses the impact of material and intangible military assistance. The article examines tensions arising from principal-agent relationships between Ukraine and the states that provided support that may have affected what was provided and when it was delivered. It is notable that providers of assistance emphasised equipment rather than training, a choice that could be made because Ukraine had already built up a high level of combat skills and military organisation. The article argues that the distinctive aspects of military assistance to Ukraine that led to its impact were the quality and quantity of equipment provided, good communication and co-ordination between Ukraine and those states providing assistance, and that Ukrainian defence and government institutions could manage the aid provided.
Acknowledgements
I thank the editor and reviewers for their suggestions. I gratefully acknowledge the role of many conversations on these issues with colleagues and friends, all errors are mine alone.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 This article uses the terms “military aid,” “military assistance,” “security assistance,” and “security force assistance” synonymously. There are many definitions of such activities. In keeping with the definition provided by previous scholars these activities are referred to in this article as “a set of activities of an external actor (provider) equipping and training an armed unit (recipient) with a stated aim to strengthen the recipients’ operational capacity and professionalism.” Øystein H. Rolandsen, Maggie Dwyer, and William Reno. ‘Security Force Assistance to Fragile States: A Framework of Analysis’, Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 15, no. 5 (2021): 563–79. Ukraine has, of course, been fighting since 2014. This article focuses upon the period 24 February 2022 to 24 February 2023. Except where explicitly stated, all references to the war or fighting concern this period.
2 For example: Tom O’Connor. ‘Billions in U.S. Aid Vanished in Afghanistan, Will Ukraine Be the Same?’, Newsweek, August 15, 2022, https://www.newsweek.com/billions-us-aid-vanished-afghanistan-will-ukraine-same-1733077; Ben Freeman and William D. Hartung, ‘The Costs and Risks of the New Ukraine Aid Package’, Stars and Stripes, May 10, 2022, https://www.stripes.com/opinion/2022-05-10/costs-and-risks-of-the-new-ukraine-aid-package-5958313.html.
3 Rolandsen et al., ‘Security Force Assistance to Fragile States’, 563–79; Nicholas Marsh and Øystein H. Rolandsen, ‘Fragmented We Fall: Security Sector Cohesion and the Impact of Foreign Security Force Assistance in Mali’, Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 15, no. 5 (2021): 614–29; Jahara Matisek, ‘The Crisis of American Military Assistance: Strategic Dithering and Fabergé Egg Armies’, Defense & Security Analysis 34, no. 3 (2018): 267–90; William Reno, ‘The Politics of Security Assistance in the Horn of Africa’, Defence Studies 18, no. 4 (2018): 498–513.
4 Matisek, ‘The Crisis of American Military Assistance’, 267–90.
5 Financial values drawn from later in the section, or from: Henry Foy, ‘Arming Ukraine: How War Forced the EU to Rewrite Defence Policy’, Financial Times, February 27, https://www.ft.com/content/1b762ff1-2c7f-40a1-aee9-d218c6ef6e37.
6 Mykhaylo Zabrodskyi, Jack Watling, Oleksandr V. Danylyuk, and Nick Reynolds, Preliminary Lessons in Conventional Warfighting from Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine: February–July 2022 (London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies).
7 Franz-Stefan Gady and Michael Kofman, ‘Ukraine’s Strategy of Attrition’, Survival 65, no. 2 (2023): 7–22.
8 Drew Hinshaw, Joe Parkinson and Nancy Youssef, ‘Weapons for Ukraine’s Fight Against Russia Flow Through Small Polish Border Towns’, Wall Street Journal, March 23, 2022, www.wsj.com.
9 Zabrodskyi et al., Preliminary Lessons in Conventional Warfighting.
10 Metallurgprom, ‘Ukraine Does Not Plan to Release Shells and Cartridges in the Coming Years – Head of Ukroboronprom’, Kyiv:Metallurgprom, https://metallurgprom.org/en/news/ukraine/6013-ukraina-ne-planiruet-v-blizhajshie-gody-vypuskat-snarjady-i-patrony-glava-ukroboronprom.html; Rob Lee and Michael Kofman, ‘How the Battle for the Donbas Shaped Ukraine’s Success’, Foreign Policy Research Institute, December 23, 2022, https://www.fpri.org/article/2022/12/how-the-battle-for-the-donbas-shaped-ukraines-success/.
11 Mark F. Cancian and James Anderson, ‘Expanding Equipment Options for Ukraine: The Case of Artillery’, Center for Strategic & International Studies, 2023.
12 Elisabeth Gosselin-Malo, ‘Pakistan, Ukraine, and the Race for Third-Party Ammunition’, The Drive, October 6, 2022. https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/pakistan-ukraine-and-the-race-for-third-party-ammunition.
13 Zabrodskyi et al., Preliminary Lessons in Conventional Warfighting; Gady and Kofman, ‘Ukraine’s Strategy of Attrition’, 2.
14 Lee and Kofman, ‘How the Battle for the Donbas Shaped Ukraine’s Success’; Gady and Kofman, ‘Ukraine’s Strategy of Attrition’, 7–22.
15 Zabrodskyi et al., Preliminary Lessons in Conventional Warfighting.
16 The Kyiv Independent, ‘Commander: Air Defense Shooting Down 80% of Russian Missiles’, March 1, 2023, https://kyivindependent.com/news-feed/ukraines-military-air-defense-shooting-down-80-of-russian-missiles.
17 Jahara Matisek, Will Reno, and Sam Rosenberg, ‘US-led Security Assistance to Ukraine is Working’, Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies, https://rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/us-led-security-assistance-ukraine-working.
18 Matisek et al., ‘US-led Security Assistance to Ukraine is Working’.
19 Ibid.
20 Jim Garamone. ‘U.S. Troops Train Ukrainians in Germany’, DOD News, April 29, 2022, https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3015610/us-troops-train-ukrainians-in-germany/.
21 Sam Skove. ‘Some Ukrainian Troops Are Still Using Soviet Methods, Despite US Training’, April 7, 2023, Defense One, https://www.defenseone.com/threats/2023/04/some-ukrainian-troops-are-still-using-soviet-methods-despite-us-training/384967/.
22 Skove. ‘Some Ukrainian Troops are Still Using Soviet Methods’.
23 Ministry of Defence, ‘Defence Secretary Ben Wallace Visits Armed Forces of Ukraine as Training Programme Starts Across the UK’, Press Release, July 9, 2022. London: Ministry of Defence.
24 Cristina Gallardo and Clea Caulcutt, ‘Ukraine’s Military Recruits need Training. Only One of Europe’s Giants is Pulling Its Weight’, Politico, September 16, 2022, https://www.politico.eu/article/uk-and-france-at-odds-over-military-training-for-ukrainians/.
25 Quote from Malin Karlsson, ‘A future EU Mission to the Ukrainian Professional Military Education sector’, FOI Memo: 7899, Stockholm: Swedish Defence Research Agency, https://www.foi.se/rest-api/report/FOI%20Memo%207899; See also Jad Sleiman, ‘Ukrainians Training with US Forces have their Own Lessons to Share’, Stars and Stripes, July 26, 2015, https://www.stripes.com/news/ukrainians-training-with-us-forces-have-their-own-lessons-to-share-1.359807; Joe Gould, ‘Interview: US Army Europe’s Lt. Gen. Ben Hodges’, Defense News, August 18, 2015, https://www.defensenews.com/interviews/2015/08/18/interview-us-army-europe-s-lt-gen-ben-hodges/.
26 Interview with (French) General Michael Yakovleff, Le Collimateur, ‘Comprendre les contre-performances de l’armée russe’, https://soundcloud.com/le-collimateur/les-contre-performances-de-larmee-russe.
27 Isabelle Khurshudyan, Dan Lamothe, Shane Harris, and Paul Sonne, ‘Ukraine’s Rocket Campaign Reliant on U.S. Precision Targeting, Officials Say’, Washington Post, February 9, 2023, www.washingtonpost.com/.
28 Khurshudyan et al., ‘Ukraine’s Rocket Campaign Reliant on U.S. Precision Targeting’.
29 Rolandsen et al., ‘Security Force Assistance to Fragile States’, 563–79; Stephen Biddle, Julia Macdonald, and Ryan Baker, ‘Small Footprint, Small Payoff: The Military Effectiveness of Security Force Assistance’, Journal of Strategic Studies 41, nos. 1–2 (2018): 89–142.
30 Marsh and Rolandsen, ‘Fragmented We Fall’, 614–29.
31 Ilaria Carrozza and Nicholas J.Marsh, ‘Great Power Competition and China’s Security Assistance to Africa: Arms, Training, and Influence’, Journal of Global Security Studies 7, no. 4 (December 2022).
32 Matisek, ‘The Crisis of American Military Assistance’, 267–90; Marsh and Rolandsen, ‘Fragmented We Fall’, 614–29.
33 Matisek, ‘The Crisis of American Military Assistance’, 267–90; Marsh and Rolandsen, ‘Fragmented We Fall’, 614–29; Rolandsen et al., ‘Security Force Assistance to Fragile States’, 563–79; Biddle et al., ‘Small Footprint, Small Payoff’, 89–142. Reno, ‘The Politics of Security Assistance in the Horn of Africa’, 498–513.
34 Haley Britzky, ‘Afghanistan Watchdog “Not Super Optimistic” that US Will Learn Its Lessons from Afghanistan to Help Ukraine’, CNN, February 28, 2022, https://edition.cnn.com/2023/02/28/politics/afghanistan-watchdog-lessons-learned-ukraine-sigar/index.html.
35 Michael Weiss and James Rushton, ‘Ukrainian Defense Minister Oleksii Reznikov: “We are Already a De Facto Member of NATO”’, CNN, May 3, 2023, https://news.yahoo.com/ukrainian-defense-minister-oleksii-reznikov-we-are-already-a-de-facto-member-of-nato-210027563.html.
36 BBC, ‘Ukraine War: Zelensky Adviser Says West’s “Indecision” is killing Ukrainians’, BBC NEWS, January 21, 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-64355839.
37 Reuters, ‘Ukraine’s Zelenskiy Tells France, Germany to Provide “Game Changing” Weapons’, Reuters, February 8, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/macron-host-ukraines-zelenskiy-germanys-scholz-paris-wednesday-2023-02-08/.
38 Matisek et al., ‘US-led Security Assistance to Ukraine is Working’.
39 Ibid.
40 Nicholas Marsh, ‘Arms and Influence in Ukraine’, Blog Post, March 17, 2022. Oslo: Peace Research Institute Oslo, https://blogs.prio.org/2022/03/arms-and-influence-in-ukraine/.
41 David Sanger, Eric Schmitt, Helene Cooper, and Julian Barnes, ‘U.S. Makes Contingency Plans in Case Russia Uses Its Most Powerful Weapons’, New York Times, March 23, 2022, www.nytimes.com.
42 PBS, ‘NATO Chief Fears Ukraine War Could Broaden into Wider Conflict’, December 9, 2022, www.pbs.org.
43 The Economist, ‘Giving Ukraine Heavy Weapons Does Not Mean NATO is at War with Russia’, April 17, 2022.
44 Phil Stewart and Idrees Ali, ‘U.S. and Ukraine Discuss Danger of Escalation as New Arms Extend Kyiv’s Reach’, Reuters, May 26, 2022.
45 Karen DeYoung. ‘Russia Warns U.S. to Stop Arming Ukraine’, The Washington Post, April 15.
46 Ibid.
47 Stewart and Ali, ‘U.S. and Ukraine Discuss Danger of Escalation’.
48 Matisek et al., ‘US-led Security Assistance to Ukraine is Working’.
49 Michael Gordon and Gordon Lubold, ‘U.S. Altered Himars Rocket Launchers to Keep Ukraine from Firing Missiles Into Russia’, Wall Street Journal, December 5, 2022, www.wsj.com.
50 Reuters, ‘Ukraine Says It Will Not Strike Russian Territory with New Missiles’, February 5, 2023, www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraine-says-it-will-not-strike-russian-territory-with-new-missiles-2023-02-05/.
51 Alice Speri, ‘U.S. Military Aid to Ukraine Grows to Historic Proportions – Along With Risks’, The Intercept, September 10, 2022.
52 Robbie Gramer and Jack Detsch, ‘Russia’s Stripped Its Western Borders to Feed the Fight in Ukraine’, Foreign Policy, September 28, 2022, foreignpolicy.com.
53 Google, ‘Fog of War How the Ukraine Conflict Transformed the Cyber Threat Landscape’, 2023, Mountain View: Google, https://blog.google/threat-analysis-group/fog-of-war-how-the-ukraine-conflict-transformed-the-cyber-threat-landscape/.
54 John Schaus, ‘Saint Javelin of Limited Supply’, Blog Post, March 28, 2022, Washington: Centre for Strategic and International Studies, https://www.csis.org/analysis/saint-javelin-limited-supply.
55 Mark Cancian, ‘Will the United States Run Out of Javelins Before Russia Runs Out of Tanks?’ Blog Post, April 12, 2022, Washington: Centre for Strategic and International Studies, https://www.csis.org/analysis/will-united-states-run-out-javelins-russia-runs-out-tanks.
56 Steven Erlanger and Lara Jakes, ‘U.S. and NATO Scramble to Arm Ukraine and Refill Their Own Arsenals’, New York Times, November 26, 2022, www.nytimes.com.
57 For example: Thomas Barnett, The Pentagon’s New Map: War and Peace in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Putnam Publishing Group, 2004).
58 Bojan Pancevski, ‘Europe is Rushing Arms to Ukraine but Running Out of Ammo’, Wall Street Journal, December 22, 2022, www.wsj.com.
59 Steff Chávez, Alexandra Heal, Ian Bott, Sam Joiner, Sam Learner, Irene de la Torre Arenas, and Veronika Samborska, ‘How Arming Ukraine is Stretching the US Defence Industry’, Financial Times, January 3, 2023.
60 Ibid.
61 Defense Brief, ‘Denmark Donating All of Its Caesar Howitzers to Ukraine’, Defense Brief, January 19, https://defbrief.com/2023/01/19/denmark-donating-all-of-its-caesar-howitzers-to-ukraine/.
62 Gordon Lubold, Doug Cameron, and Nancy A. Youssef, ‘U.S. Effort to Arm Taiwan Faces New Challenge with Ukraine Conflict’, Wall Street Journal, November 27, 2022, www.wsj.com.
63 Le Monde, ‘Emmanuel Macron annonce une “diminution visible” des effectifs militaires français en Afrique et une loi sur les restitutions des œuvres d’art’, February 27, 2023, Paris: Le monde, https://www.lemonde.fr/.
64 International Relations and Defence Committee, ‘UK Defence Policy: From Aspiration to Reality?’ 2023, House of Lords.
65 Henry Foy, Sam Fleming, and Roman Olearchyk, ‘Nato and EU Sound Alarm Over Risk of Ukraine Weapons Smuggling’, Financial Times, July 12, 2022.
66 Ibid.
67 Bureau of Political and Military Affairs, ‘U.S. Plan to Counter Illicit Diversion of Certain Advanced Conventional Weapons in Eastern Europe’, Factsheet, October 27, 2022, Department of State, https://www.state.gov/u-s-plan-to-counter-illicit-diversion-of-certain-advanced-conventional-weapons-in-eastern-europe/.
68 Karoun Demirjian, ‘Pressure Builds to Step up Weapons Tracking in Ukraine’, Washington Post, November 27, 2022.
69 Ibid.
70 Wester Van Gaal, ‘EU Creates Hub to Stop Arms-Smuggling Out of Ukraine’, EU Observer, July 11, 2022.
71 Ibid.
72 Marsh and Rolandsen, ‘Fragmented We Fall’, 614–29.
73 Nicholas Marsh, Øystein H. Rolandsen, Julian Karssen, and Marie Sandnes, ‘Compounding Fragmentation: Security Force Assistance to Fragile States in the Sahel and Horn of Africa’, PRIO Paper (2020).
74 Marsh and Rolandsen, ‘Fragmented We Fall’, 614–29.
75 Shashank Joshi, January 5, 2023, Twitter, https://twitter.com/shashj/status/1611018799016300544.
76 Matisek et al., ‘US-Led Security Assistance to Ukraine is Working’.
77 Ministry of Defence. ‘UK Defence Ministers Host Ukrainian Government to Plan Future Military Aid’, Press Release, April 7, 2022. Ministry of Defence, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-defence-ministers-host-ukrainian-government-to-plan-future-military-aid.
78 Jack Detsch, ‘Inside a Major Nerve Center for Shipping Military Aid to Ukraine’, Foreign Policy, May 24, 2022, https://foreignpolicy.com/.
79 Meghann Myers, ‘Long-Term Assistance Command to Oversee Training Mission with Ukraine’, Military Times, November 9, 2022, https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2022/11/09/long-term-assistance-command-to-oversee-training-mission-with-ukraine/.
80 Skove, ‘Some Ukrainian Troops Are Still Using Soviet Methods’.
81 Jahara Matisek, Will Reno, and Sam Rosenberg. ‘The Good, the Bad and the Ugly: Assessing a Year of Military Aid to Ukraine’, Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies, 2023, https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/good-bad-and-ugly-assessing-year-military-aid-ukraine.
82 Ibid.
83 Ibid.
84 Øystein H. Rolandsen and Niagalé Bagayoko, ‘A Hidden Conundrum: Security Assistance and Informality in the Sahel’, PRIO Policy Brief 1 (2023).
85 Matisek et al., ‘US-led Security Assistance to Ukraine is Working’.
86 Alexandra Kerr, ‘Defense Institution Building: A New Paradigm for the 21st Century’, in Effective, Legitimate, Secure: Insights for Defense Institution Building, ed. Alexandra Kerr and Michael Miklucic (Washington, DC: National Defense University, 2017), ix–xxvii.
87 Matisek et al., ‘The Good, the Bad and the Ugly’.
88 Ibid.
89 Charles Tilly, ‘Reflections on the History of European State-Making’, in The Formation on Nation States in Western Europe, ed. Charles Tilly (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 3–83, quote from page 42.
90 Ben Hall and Roman Olearchyk, ‘Ukraine has Upgraded its War Aims as Confidence Grows, Says Foreign Minister’, Financial Times, May 10, 2022, www.ft.com.
91 Winston Churchill, ‘Give Us the Tools’, Speech, February 9, 1941, National Churchill Museum, https://www.nationalchurchillmuseum.org/give-us-the-tools.html.
92 Financial values drawn from later in the section, or from: Foy, ‘Arming Ukraine’.
93 Nan Tian, ‘20 Years of US Military Aid to Afghanistan’, September 22, 2021, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, https://www.sipri.org/commentary/topical-backgrounder/2021/20-years-us-military-aid-afghanistan, Published figure adjusted for inflation.
94 Douglas Dacy, Foreign Aid, War, and Economic Development: South Vietnam, 1955–1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univrsity Press, 1986), 200.
95 Greg Hadley and John Tirpak, ‘Pentagon: “Roughly 8 to 10 Flights a Day” Full of Aid for Ukraine Pouring into Europe’, April 12. Air & Space Forces Magazine, https://www.airandspaceforces.com/pentagon-8-to-10-flights-day-full-of-aid-for-ukraine-pouring-into-europe/.
96 Congressional Research Service, ‘U.S. Security Assistance to Ukraine’, February 27, Update, Congressional Research Service, 2023, https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF12040. This source is used for all the financial data on US miliary aid in this section.
97 Council of the European Union, ‘Ukraine: Council Agrees on Further Military Support under the European Peace Facility’, Press Release, February 2, 2023, Council of the European Union.
98 Foy, ‘Arming Ukraine’.
99 Claire Mills, ‘Military Assistance to Ukraine Since the Russian Invasion’, February 21, 2023. House of Commons Library. Except where stated other information on UK aid in this section comes from this source.
100 US Department of Defense, ‘Department of Defense Statement on Additional Military Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, February 26. US Department of Defense; Joe Gould and Howard Altman, ‘Amid Fears of Russian Air Dominance, US to Send Anti-Aircraft Stingers to Ukraine’, Army Times, February 28, 2022, https://www.armytimes.com/; Eric Schmitt, ‘The White House Approves $200 Million in Arms and Equipment for Ukraine’, New York Times, March 21, https://www.nytimes.com/; The White House, ‘Fact Sheet on U.S. Security Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, March 16, 2022, White House, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/03/16/fact-sheet-on-u-s-security-assistance-for-ukraine/.
101 The figures include missiles sent immediately prior to 25 February. Ministry of Defence, ‘Defence Secretary Meets NATO Defence Minister in Brussels’, Press Release, March 16, 2022, Ministry of Defence, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/defence-secretary-meets-nato-defence-minister-in-brussels; Jessica Elgot, ‘UK Doubles Number of Missiles Sent to Ukraine Ahead of Nato Summit’, The Guardian, March 23, 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/23/uk-doubles-number-of-missiles-sent-to-ukraine-ahead-of-nato-summit.
102 US Department of Defense, ‘Statement on $800 Million in Additional Security Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, April 21, 2022, US Department of Defense, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3006230/statement-on-800-million-in-additional-security-assistance-for-ukraine/; US Department of Defense, ‘$700 Million in Additional Security Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, June 1, 2022, US Department of Defense, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3049472/700-million-in-additional-security-assistance-for-ukraine/; US Department of Defense, ‘$820 Million in Additional Security Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, July 1, 2022, US Department of Defense, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3081993/820-million-in-additional-security-assistance-for-ukraine/.
103 US Department of Defense, ‘$1.1 Billion in Additional Security Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, September 28, 2022, US Department of Defense, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3173378/11-billion-in-additional-security-assistance-for-ukraine/.
104 US Department of Defense, ‘$275 Million in Additional Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, December 9, 2023, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3241679/275-million-in-additional-assistance-for-ukraine/; US Department of Defense, ‘$400 Million in Additional Security Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, November 4, 2022. US Department of Defense, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3210297/400-million-in-additional-security-assistance-for-ukraine/.
105 US Department of Defense, ‘$275 Million in Additional Assistance for Ukraine’.
106 US Department of Defense, https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3277910/biden-announces-abrams-tanks-to-be-delivered-to-ukraine/; US Department of Defense, ‘More Than $3 Billion in Additional Security Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, January 6, 2023, US Department of Defense, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3261263/more-than-3-billion-in-additional-security-assistance-for-ukraine/; US Department of Defense, ‘Biden Administration Announces Additional Security Assistance for Ukraine’, Press Release, January 9, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3272866/biden-administration-announces-additional-security-assistance-for-ukraine/#.Y8nvxAmuJAQ.twitter.
107 Mick Ryan, ‘The Coming Fight Will be Different’, Futura Doctrina, April 4, 2023, https://mickryan.substack.com/p/the-coming-fight-will-be-different.
108 European Union, ‘Informal Videoconference of Foreign Affairs Ministers: Remarks by High Representative/Vice-President Josep Borrell at the Press Conference’, Press Release, February 27, 2022. European Union.
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Nicholas Marsh
Nicholas Marsh is a Senior Researcher at the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) and he has a doctorate from the University of Oslo. He currently works on disarmament, arms control, military aid, governance of digital technologies, illicit arms trafficking and the licensed arms trade. He has been the chair of a European research network on the proliferation of small arms, and a consultant to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime and to the Small Arms Survey.