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Bulletin of Spanish Studies
Hispanic Studies and Researches on Spain, Portugal and Latin America
Volume 92, 2015 - Issue 8-10: Hispanic Studies and Researches in Honour of Ann L. Mackenzie
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ARTICLES

Gustos and gastos: Anxiety, Economy, Nation and the Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Spain

 

Abstract

As the economy developed in the mid nineteenth-century Spain, with the creation of the Stock Market, the banking system and intensified industrial production, many writers (and citizens) became obsessed with money. Family and individual fortunes rose and fell, and the fear of losing accumulated capital (or possessions) marked the literature of the century. Before the advent of the realist novel, however, when narrators succeeded in having their characters play out the economic games that dominated their thinking and actions, the theatre provided a space in which writers could work out the issues that most perplexed, or most entertained, their audiences. Examples from playwrights such as Gálvez de Cabrera (La familia a la moda [1805]), Saavedra (Tanto vales cuanto tienes [1827]), Gil de Zárate (Don Trifón [1841]), Dacarrete (Poderoso caballero es don Dinero [1857]), Larra (hijo) (La Bolsa y el bolsillo [1859]), and others reveal the serious anxiety generated by the acquisition, manipulation and potential loss of financial security in nineteenth-century Spain.

Notes

1 Francisco de Quevedo, Poesía original completa, ed., intro. & notas de José Manuel Blecua (Barcelona: Planeta, 1999), 674.

2 Gabriel Tortella reveals that in 1829 Spain had one bank (‘sociedades bancarias por acciones’) yet by 1865 more than fifty-eight such entities existed. Then, years of financial and political crises reduced that number to a mere twenty-two by 1874 (‘La evolución del sistema financiero español de 1856 a 1868’, in Ensayos sobre la economía española a mediados del siglo XIX, coord. Pedro Schwartz Girón [Madrid: Ariel, 1970], 17–146 [p. 17]).

3 Adrian Shubert claims that by mid century the middle class comprised some 3% of the total population, a number that dramatically increased in the second half of the century (Adrian Shubert, A Social History of Modern Spain [London: Unwin Hayman, 1990], 110). See also Jesús Cruz, The Rise of Middle-Class Culture in Nineteenth-Century Spain (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State U. P. 2011).

4 Eric Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels: Studies of Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the 19th and 20th Centuries (New York: Norton, 1959), 4.

5 David R. Ringrose, Spain, Europe, and the ‘Spanish Miracle’, 1700–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 1996), 61–62. José María Jover and Guadalupe Gómez-Ferrer provide a useful outline of four major moments of economic change between 1834 and 1868. In their words: ‘A la primera, 1834–1843, se atribuye “el fin del Antiguo Régimen” en España, por más que últimamente se tiende a dar mayor latitud temporal a tal concepto. Entre 1843 y 1854 transcurre una etapa de consolidaciones, que en la historiografía clásica recibe el nombre de década moderada. La tercera etapa va desde 1854 hasta 1868: es la época del bienio y de la Unión Liberal, y significa la adaptación del moderantismo a unos condicionamientos históricos que en los años cincuenta y en los años sesenta no serán ya los mismos de la anterior década moderada. En fin, una cuarta etapa: el sexenio democrático, manifestación de una carga de esperanzas y de utopías, no siempre conseguidas ni adecuadamente perseguidas’ (José María Jover & Guadalupe Gómez-Ferrer, ‘La revolución liberal [1834–1874]’, in España: sociedad, política y civilización [siglos XIX–XX], ed. Isabel Belmonte López [Madrid: Edición Debate, 2001], 151–202 [p. 153]).

6 Ringrose, Spain, Europe, and the ‘Spanish Miracle’, 61–62.

7 David R. Ringrose, Transportation and Economic Stagnation in Spain, 1750–1850 (Durham, NC: Duke U. P., 1970), xxiii.

8 José María Jover & Guadalupe Gómez-Ferrer, ‘La difícil modernización de la economía’, in España: sociedad, política y civilización (siglos XIX–XX), ed. Belmonte López, 127–50 (p. 127).

9 Gabriel Tortella, The Development of Modern Spain. An Economic History of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, trans. Valerie J. Herr (Cambridge, MA: Harvard U. P., 2000), 156.

10 John Vernon, Money and Fiction: Literary Realism in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Ithaca: Cornell U. P., 1984), 20.

11 Cited in Christopher Herbert, ‘Filthy Lucre: Victorian Ideas of Money’, Victorian Studies, 44:2 (2002), 185–213 (p. 195).

12 Last four cited in Vernon, Money and Fiction, 27.

13 María Rosa Gálvez de Cabrera, La familia a la moda, in Safo. Zinda. La familia a la moda, ed. Fernando Doménech (Madrid: Publicaciones de la Asociación de Directores de Escena de España, 1995). All references to the plays cited in this article will be by short title, act and scene.

14 Juan Antonio Hormigón, Autoras en la historia del teatro español (1500–1994), 2 vols (Madrid: Publicaciones de la Asociación de Directores de Escena de España, 1996), I, 500.

15 Edward Copeland, Women Writing about Money. Women's Fiction in England, 1790–1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 1995), 92.

16 Ramón Santillán, Memoria histórica sobre los Bancos Nacional de San Carlos, Español de San Fernando, Isabel II, Nuevo de San Fernando, y de España (Madrid, T. Fortanet, 1865), 3. A Royal Decree of 2 June 1782 created the Banco de San Carlos, but it was troubled from the very beginning, according to Santillán's Memoria. Decree after decree attempted to stabilize the bank (9 November 1820, 1 October 1823, 9 July 1829), but all failed (Santillán, Memoria histórica, 120). Part of its problems stemmed from unwise, grandiose and unfundable government plans (such as the one to build a navigation canal from the Guadarrama mountains down to Sevilla—just the type of idiotic plan satirized by Cadalso in Carta 34 of Cartas marruecas. ‘¿Y no era ridícula a fuerza de ser jigantesca y sobre todo irrealizable la de construir un canal de navegación desde el Guadarrama hasta Sevilla? ¿Qué medios tenía el Banco, y cuáles podía aplicar a tan grandiosa obra el Gobierno … ?’ (Santillán, Memoria histórica, 135). In 1829, the Banco de San Fernando superseded the Banco de San Carlos in an effort to ward off impending bankruptcy.

17 Ermanno Caldera, ‘Introducción’, in Ángel de Saavedra, Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino, ed. & intro. Ermanno Caldera (Madrid: Taurus, 1986), 7–69 (p. 16).

18 Ángel de Saavedra, duque de Rivas, Tanto vales cuanto tienes [1827] (Madrid: Repullés, 1840), I: 5.

19 Gambling is a constant concern throughout the nineteenth century, intimately connected with the economic Angst we are dealing with here. It makes several appearances in this play as well (Miguel claims he wants to marry Paquita, but the servants believe that he ‘solo quiere pillar / dinero para jugar’ (Tanto vales, III, 1). Later, Miguel curses his gambling habit: ‘maldito cien mil veces / el que inventó la baraja’ (Tanto vales, III, 28). The topic deserves further study.

20 Simeón is a ridiculous figure, comically exaggerated by Rivas; Galdós, later in the century, would present a similar character, Torquemada, but with much more sympathy and subtlety.

21 Years later, Engels would rail against ‘quick profit’: ‘The middle classes in England have become the slaves of the money they worship [ … ] They really believe that all human beings [ … ] and indeed all living things and inanimate objects have a real existence only if they make money or help to make it. Their sole happiness is derived from gaining quick profit. They feel pain only if they suffer a financial loss’ (Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England [1845], trans. W. O. Henderson & W. H. Chaloner [Stanford: Stanford U. P., 1968], 311–12; cited in Herbert, ‘Filthy Lucre’, 188).

22 This phrase—‘el tanto por ciento’—of course becomes the title of one of Adelardo López de Ayala's biggest hits in 1861.

23 Cited in Herbert, ‘Filthy Lucre’, 188.

24 Antonio Gil y Zárate, Don Trifón, o todo por el dinero (Madrid: Repullés, 1841).

25 José María Jover & Guadalupe Gómez-Ferrer, ‘El desarrollo económico’, in España: sociedad, política y civilización (siglos XIX–XX), ed. Belmonte López, 285–307 (p. 129).

26 Gil provides mini-lessons for his audience on how the Bolsa works, in dialogues full of words like ‘deuda’, ‘dinero’, ‘compr[ar]’, ‘plazo’, ‘contrata’, ‘papel’ and ‘negocio’.

27 ‘[ … ] con un capital de 400 millones de reales, representado por 200.000 acciones de a 2.000 reales, que se emiterion con el 50 por 100 de desembolso, entregando 100.000 acciones a cada uno de los dos Bancos fusionados. Se concedió al nuevo Banco la facultad exclusiva en Madrid de emitir billetes por una suma igual a su capital efectivo’ (Eloy Martínez Pérez, Banco de España: su régimen, operaciones y situación, 2nd ed. [Madrid: Gráficas Reunidas, 1922], 3).

28 ‘El día 9 de marzo de 1856 celebró su última Junta general de accionistas el Banco Español de San Fernando, que, en virtud de la ley de 28 de enero de aquel año, se denominaría en lo sucesivo Banco de España’ (Martínez Pérez, Banco de España, 1).

29 Jover & Gómez-Ferrer, ‘La difícil modernización de la economía’, 128.

30 Jover & Gómez-Ferrer, ‘La difícil modernización’, 146. Gabriel Tortella underscores the instability of the banking system between 1856 and 1868: ‘Entre 1856 y 1868 el sistema bancario español estuvo sujeto a fuertes conmociones. Su crecimiento durante los primeros ocho años de estos casi tres lustros fue fulgurante, pese a un indudable bache en 1858 y 1859. Su derrumbamiento durante los años 1864–1868 tuvo unas proporciones de catástrofe’ (‘La evolución del sistema financiero español de 1856 a 1868’, 17).

31 Cipriano López-Salgado, ¡El dinero! (Madrid: Vicente de Lalama, 1849).

32 Ángel María Dacarrete, Poderoso caballero es don Dinero (Madrid: José Rodríguez, 1857).

33 Tortella, ‘La evolución del sistema financiero español de 1856 a 1868’, 26.

34 Fructuoso spells it out: ‘Ramírez, que es diputado influyente y jefe de una fracción del congreso, se disponía a dirigir hoy que se votan los presupuestos, un tremendo discurso contra el ministerio, lo que le enagenaría algunos votos independientes además de los de las oposiciones, y así era casi imposible que el gabinete obtuviese mayoría’ (Poderoso caballero, III, 1).

35 A curious note to this play is the fact that the censors let everything by except for references to the Casino de Madrid, a centre of power for the Spanish elites since its founding in 1836. We have no documentation for the reason for this suppression, although one might speculate that the censors brooked no criticism of an institution whose very existence depended on what María Zozaya Montes calls its ‘capital social’ (Del ocio al negocio: redes y capital social en el Casino de Madrid, 1836–1901 [Madrid: Catarata, 2007], 121).

36 Manuel Angelón y Broquetas, La Bolsa (Barcelona: Narciso Ramírez, 1858).

37 The Canal was a major public-works project conceived in August 1851 to bring water from the Lozoya valley to the centre of Madrid. It generated controversy from the beginning, and became a major source of speculation for the next several years; it was inaugurated on 24 June 1858. See Ideas generales sobre el proyecto del Canal de Isabel II y estado de las obras en 31 de diciembre de 1852 (Madrid: Eusebio Aguado, 1853).

38 Ringrose, Spain, Europe, and the ‘Spanish Miracle’, 62–63.

39 Galdós frequently took time to educate his readers on similar matters. For example, in Lo prohibido, Fúcar says to José María, speaking of Eloísa's quick study on capitalism: ‘Me ha preguntado lo que es comprar a plazo, en voluntad y en firme. He tenido que darle una lección de cosas de Bolsa sin olvidar las triquiñuelas del oficio … Mucho ojo, que la señora piensa demasiado en el dinero’ (Benito Pérez Galdós, Lo prohibido, ed. Alda Blanco [(Madrid: Akal, 2006], 180).

40 See David T. Gies, ‘El otro Larra: Luis Mariano de Larra y Wetoret, dramaturgo “desconocido” de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX (con apéndice de títulos)’, Anales de Literatura Española, 20 (2008), 241–57.

41 Antonio García Huerta [Luis Mariano de Larra], La Bolsa y el bolsillo (Madrid: José Rodríguez, 1859).

42 Similar concerns are aired in plays such as Una mujer literata (1851) (José María Gutiérrez de Alba), Un matrimonio a la moda (1851) (Ramón de Navarrete), Mujer de medio siglo (1858) (Francisco Botella), La corona del martirio (1865) (Angelina Martínez de Lafuente), El porvenir de las familias (1865) (Juan de Alba), La ruina del hogar (1873) (Enriqueta Lozano de Vilchez) or Los pantalones de mi mujer (1918) (Luis Linares Becerra).

43 Ringrose, Spain, Europe, and the ‘Spanish Miracle’, 395.

44 Teresa Fuentes Peris follows up on Galdós' interest in these and links Torquemada's conversion project directly to the nation's fortunes: ‘Torquemada voices his frustration with his inability to carry out his debt conversion project, and regrets the economic loss that this will entail for the nation’ (Teresa Fuentes Peris, Galdós's ‘Torquemada’ Novels: Waste and Profit in Late Nineteenth-Century Spain [Cardiff: Univ. of Wales Press, 2007], 8).

I should like to thank Elizabeth Hermann, José Luis González Subías and Miguel Valladares-Llata for invaluable help with this study.

* Disclosure Statement: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

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