Crisis, Religion and Turn-of-the-Century British and American Travel Writing on Spain

Abstract

This article focuses on the awareness of Spanish crisis and its relation to religion as found in under-examined British and American travel writings on Spain. The turn-of-the-century brought renewed interest in the country, this time less in her past and more in her conflict-ridden present, though the past, or at least a particular slant on the past, continued to inform the perspectives of British and American travel writers. The enduring presence of anti-Catholicism throughout the nineteenth century, still drawing on the image of Spain as a land of persecution and intolerance, found common ground in the later anti-religious, anticlerical strain of thought at the end of this period. Both the belief system of individual writers and the complicated, mutually persecutory dynamic between nineteenth-century Protestants and Catholics (often attached to anti-Protestantism), need to be examined. What these writers share, whether Protestant, Catholic or anticlericalists, is a sense of investment in a particular vision of modern Spain as flawed and yet stubbornly pertinent to the world, a peculiar reembodiment of the missionary spirit to convert and reform having left its religious and political trace in these writings.

Key words:

• crisis
• religion
• travel writings
• anti-Catholicism
• Protestants
• Catholics
• anti-Protestantism
• anticlericalists
• missionary

Notes

1 C. Bogue Luffmann, Quiet Days in Spain (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1910); Rafael Shaw, Spain from Within (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1910); S[amuel] L[evy] Bensusan, Home Life in Spain (New York: Macmillan Co., 1910); John D. Fitz-Gerald, Rambles in Spain (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1910); E[lizabeth] Boyle O'Reilly, Heroic Spain (New York: Duffield & Co., 1910); Mary F. Nixon-Roulet, The Spaniard at Home (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 1910); Havelock Ellis, The Soul of Spain, new ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1937 [1^st ed. 1908]); Joseph Thompson Shaw, Spain of To-day: A Narrative Guide to the Country of the Dons, with Suggestions for Travellers (New York: The Grafton Press, 1909); Manuel Andújar, Spain of To-Day from Within. With an Autobiography of the Author (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1909); Harry A. Franck, Four Months Afoot in Spain (Garden City: Garden City Publishing, 1911); C[atherine] Gasquoine Hartley, Things Seen in Spain (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1911). My thanks to Evelyn Scaramella and Veronica Mayer for their assistance in locating some of these materials.

2 Katharine Lee Bates, Spanish Highways and Byways (Chautauqua: The Chautauqua Press, 1920 [1^st ed. 1900]); L[etitia] Higgin, Spanish Life in Town and Country, with Chapters on Portuguese Life in Town and Country, by Eugene E. Street (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1904 [1^st ed. 1902]). Space limitations preclude addressing all these publications to the same degree.

3 Stanley T. Williams, The Spanish Background of American Literature, 2 vols (Hamden: Archon Books, 1968 [1^st ed. 1955]), I, 59. For examples in this period, see: Karl Baedeker, Spain and Portugal. Handbook for Travellers, 3^rd ed. (New York: Scribner's, 1908); O'Shea's Guide to Spain and Portugal, ed. John Lomas, 13^th ed. (London: A. & C. Black, 1905); John L. Stoddard, John L. Stoddard's Lectures. Paris, La Belle France, and Spain, 10 vols (Boston: Balch Brothers, 1906), Vol. V; The Princess [Bertha Whitridge Smith], Traveller's Tales Told in Letters from Belgium, Germany, England, Scotland, France, and Spain (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1912); Charles H. Caffin, The Story of Spanish Painting (New York: Century Co., 1910); Clara Crawford Perkins, Builders of Spain, 2 vols (New York: Henry Holt, 1911); Mary F. Nixon-Roulet, Fernando, Our Little Spanish Cousin, 4^th impression, The Little Cousin Series (Boston: L. C. Page & Co., 1910 [1^st ed.1906]); Katharine Lee Bates, In Sunny Spain with Pilarica and Rafael, Little Schoolmate Series (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1913).

4 W. A. T., review of Rafael Shaw's Spain from Within, The Geographical Journal, 36:6 (1910), 718.

5 Warren Barton Blake, ‘Spain of To-Day’, The Dial, 50, 16 April 1911, pp. 308–09 (p. 308).

6 Anon., ‘The New Books’, The Outlook, 97:16, 22 April 1911, pp. 941–44 (p. 942).

7 Anon., ‘New York Literary Notes’, The New York Times, 13 August 1910, p. 16.

8 Anon., ‘Notes’, The Nation, 92:2375, 5 January 1911, pp. 17–19 (p. 18).

9 Anon., ‘Spain in Art and Literature’, The New York Times, 31 July 1909, p. 17.

10 Blake, ‘Spain of To-Day’, The Dial, 50, 16 April 1911, p. 308.

11 Franck, Four Months Afoot in Spain, 73.

12 Anon., ‘The New Books’, The Outlook, 97:16, 22 April 1911, p. 942.

13 Anon., ‘Spain in Art and Literature’, The New York Times, 31 July 1909, p. 17.

14 See William J. Callahan, The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875–1998 (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic Univ. of America Press, 2000), Chapters II and III.

15 For the earlier history, see Susan Irene Jackson, ‘Methodism in Gibraltar and Its Mission in Spain, 1769–1842’, PhD thesis (University of Durham, 2000).

16 Hilary Macartney, ‘The Catholic Question: Attitudes to Roman Catholicism in Nineteenth-Century Britain and Ireland and Their Impact on the Reception of Spanish Art’, in Spanish Art in Britain and Ireland, 1750–1920, ed. Nigel Glendinning & Hilary Macartney (Woodbridge: Tamesis, 2010), 139–61 (pp. 140–44).

17 Macartney, ‘The Catholic Question’, 144.

18 Anon., ‘The Blight of Popery’, The Bulwark or Reformation Journal, 1, 2 August 1851, pp. 41–43 (p. 43).

19 Anon., ‘Persecution in Spain’, The Bulwark or Reformation Journal, 11, 2 December 1861, pp. 155–57 (p. 156).

20 Rev. Samuel W. Barnum, Romanism As It Is: An Exposition of the Roman Catholic System for the Use of the American People (Hartford: Connecticut Publishing Co., 1878), 704, 710.

21 David Howarth, The Invention of Spain. Cultural Relations between Britain and Spain, 1770–1870 (Manchester: Manchester U. P., 2007), 61, 66.

22 Macartney, ‘The Catholic Question’, 142–43; Joseph Blanco White, The Poor Man's Preservative against Popery: Addressed to the Lower Classes of Great Britain and Ireland, 3^rd ed. (London: C. & J. Rivington, 1826); [J. Blanco White], Preservativo contra Roma (Edinburgh: Imprenta de Tomás Constable, 1856) (trans. by José Joaquín de Mora, according to Martin Murphy, Blanco White: Self-Banished Spaniard [New Haven: Yale U. P., 1989], 227, n. 16); Mrs Robert Peddie [Maria Denoon Peddie], Dawn of the Second Reformation in Spain (London: S. W. Partridge & Co., 1871), 31, 89, 123.

23 Noël Valis, ‘La huella del cardenal Wiseman en España’, Boletín de la Real Academia Española, 64:233 (1984), 423–49 (p. 425); Howarth, The Invention of Spain, 62, 74–75; Macartney, ‘The Catholic Question’, 145.

24 Nicholas Wiseman, ‘Spain’, in his Essays on Various Subjects, 3 vols (London: Charles Dolman, 1853), III, 3–158 (pp. 86–87).

25 George Borrow, The Bible in Spain (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1899); Peddie, Dawn of the Second Reformation in Spain.

26 Michael W. Hughey, ‘Americanism and Its Discontents: Protestantism, Nativism, and Political Heresy in America’, International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society, 5:4 (1992), 533–53 (p. 542); Barbara Welter, ‘From Maria Monk to Paul Blanshard: A Century of Protestant Anti-Catholicism’, in Uncivil Religion: Interreligious Hostility in America, ed. Robert N. Bellah & Frederick E. Greenspahn (New York: Crossroad, 1987), 43–71 (p. 48).

27 Maria Monk, Awful Disclosures of Maria Monk; or, the Hidden Secrets of a Nun's Life in a Convent Exposed! (Manchester: Milner & Co., n.d. [1^st ed. 1836]); Ray Allen Billington, ‘Maria Monk and Her Influence’, The Catholic Historical Review, 22:3 (1936), 283–96 (pp. 289, 296).

28 O. R. Butler, ‘ “The Uncle Tom's Cabin of Nativism”: Anti-Catholic Novels, Politics and Violence in the Antebellum United States’, Working with English: Medieval and Modern Language, Literature and Drama, 2:1 (2006), 12–19 (p. 13).

29 Ángel Herreros de Mora, A Narrative by Dn. Angel Herreros de Mora of His Imprisonment by the ‘Tribunal of the Faith’, and Escape from Spain, trans. Rev. W[illiam] H. Rule (London: Alexander Heylin, 1856). Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo initially believed Herreros de Mora was fictional (Historia de los heterodoxos españoles, ed. Enrique Sánchez Reyes, 2^nd ed., 8 vols [Madrid: CSIC, 1963], VI, 318, n. 2); see also: Juan B[autista] Vilar, Intolerancia y libertad en la España contemporánea. Los orígenes del protestantismo español actual (Madrid: Ediciones Istmo, 1994), 294–301; José António Afonso, António Manuel S. P. Silva, Silvestre Lacerda & Fernando Peixoto, ‘Ángel Herreros de Mora: um expoente da convergência ibérica na implantação do anglicanismo peninsular’, Anales de Historia Contemporánea, 21 (2005), 383–408; and ‘Report of the Spanish Evangelical Church at Lisbon 1868–1872’, <http://anglicanhistory.org/europe/lisbon_spanish1872.html> (Project Canterbury) (accessed 19 April 2014).

30 Anon., ‘The Case of M. de Mora’, The Bulwark or Reformation Journal, 6:65, 1 November 1856, pp. 134–35 (p. 135); see also Peddie, Dawn of the Second Reformation, 93–94.

31 For this account, I have relied on Juan B[autista] Vilar, Manuel Matamoros: Fundador del protestantismo español actual (Granada: Editorial Comares, 2003); Matamoros’ defence attorney, Antonio Moreno y Díaz, [‘Defensa del protestante Manuel Matamoros’], El Clamor Público, Suplemento No. 531 (14 May 1862); Alfonso Torres de Castilla [Fernando Garrido Tortosa], Historia de las persecuciones políticas y religiosas, 6 vols (Barcelona: Imprenta y Librería de Salvador Manero, 1866), VI, 1078–148; and William Greene, Manuel Matamoros. His Life and Death, 3^rd ed. (London: Alfred Holness, 1889 [1^st ed. 1863, under the title, Manuel Matamoros and His Fellow-Prisoners; A Narrative of the Present Persecution of Christians in Spain]).

32 Anon., ‘The Trial of Matamoros and the Spanish Protestants’, The Bulwark or Reformation Journal, 12, 1 June 1863, pp. 320–21 (p. 321); Greene, Manuel Matamoros: His Life and Death, 29, 75, 163, 180–84.

33 Vilar, Manuel Matamoros, 87.

34 Moreno y Díaz, [‘Defensa del protestante Manuel Matamoros’], n.p.

35 Barnum, Romanism As It Is, 650.

36 Anon., ‘The Spanish Inquisition’, The Bulwark or Reformation Journal, 12, 2 March 1863, p. 239.

37 Peddie, Dawn of the Second Reformation, 2.

38 An Old Resident, Roman Catholicism in Spain (Edinburgh: Johnstone & Hunter/London: R. Groombridge & Sons, 1855), 10. On the book's authorship, see: Menéndez y Pelayo, who attributes it to an ‘N. Mora’ (Historia de los heterodoxos españoles, ed. Sánchez Reyes, VI, 318); Vilar, Intolerancia y libertad en la España contemporánea, 292–93; and Manuel de León, ‘José Joaquín de Mora, “el otro Blanco White” ’, <http://www.protestantedigital.com/ES/Blogs/articulo/3694/Jose-joaquin-de-mora-el-otro-blanco-white> (accessed 19 April 2014). De Mora also wrote several Protestant hymns (Gabino Fernández Campos, Reforma y contrarreforma en Andalucía [Sevilla: Editoriales Andaluzas Unidas, (1986?)], 202, 204).

39 Peddie, Dawn of the Second Reformation, 22; Juan B[autista] Vilar, ‘El Alba, una revista británica protestante para su difusión en España (1854–1862)’, Anales de Historia Contemporánea, 12 (1996), 617–37.

40 S[evern] T[eackle] Wallis, Spain: Her Institutions, Politics, and Public Men. A Sketch (Boston: Ticknor, Reed and Fields, 1853), 267; also Bernard C. Steiner, ‘Severn Teackle Wallis: First Paper’, The Sewanee Review, 15:1 (1907), 58–74 (p. 59); and Richard L. Kagan, ‘From Noah to Moses: The Genesis of Historical Scholarship on Spain in the United States’, in Spain in America: The Origins of Hispanism in the United States, ed. Richard L. Kagan (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 2002), 21–48 (p. 38).

41 Raymond Carr, Spain 1808–1939 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966), 285.

42 Gregorio Alonso, ‘ “Not So Faithful Nations”: The Second Reformation and Religious Persecution in Catholic Europe’, in Poetry, Politics and Pictures: Culture and Identity in Europe, 1840–1914, ed. Ingrid Hanson, Wilfred Jack Rhoden & E. E. Snyder (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2013), 247–68 (p. 263); see, for example, Menéndez y Pelayo's hostile attitude to Protestantism in Historia de los heterodoxos españoles, ed. Sánchez Reyes, VI, 301–39.

43 Demetrio Castro Alfín, ‘Anarquismo y protestantismo. Reflexiones sobre un viejo argumento’, Studia Histórica. Historia Contemporánea, 16 (1998), 197–220 (p. 213).

44 Peddie, Dawn of the Second Reformation, 87, 119; also Vilar, Intolerancia y libertad en la España contemporánea, 190–92.

45 Jean-Pierre Bastian, ‘Los dirigentes protestantes españoles y su vínculo masónico, 1868–1939: hacia la elaboración de un corpus’, Anales de Historia Contemporánea, 21 (2005), 409–26.

46 Castro Alfín, ‘Anarquismo y protestantismo’, 216.

47 Lisa Abend, ‘Specters of the Secular: Spiritism in Nineteenth-Century Spain’, European History Quarterly, 34:4 (2004), 507–34 (pp. 517, 521).

48 Abend, ‘Specters of the Secular’, 522.

49 Frances [‘Fanny’] Calderón de la Barca, The Attaché in Madrid; or, Sketches of the Court of Isabella II (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1856), 95; see also Beth Bauer, ‘Crossing Over: Gender and Empire in Fanny Calderón de la Barca's The Attaché in Madrid’, Hispanic Review, 79:1 (2011), 43–65. The book was published anonymously as ‘translated from the German’. Spanish version: Madrid hace cincuenta años á los ojos de un diplomático extranjero, trans. Don Ramiro [Cristóbal de Reina y Massa] (Madrid: Bailly-Baillière e Hijos, 1904).

50 Alonso, ‘ “Not So Faithful Nations” ’, 264; for more on the British Cemetery in Madrid, see David J. Butler, Historical Account of the British Cemetery, Madrid, 3^rd ed. (Madrid: n.p., 2001) <http://britishcemeterymadrid.com/rajdeep/UserFiles/File/Historical%20account%20of%20British%20Cemetery20090701.pdf> (accessed 20 May 2014); and Carlos Saguar Quer, ‘El cementerio británico de Madrid’, Anales del Instituto de Estudios Madrileños, 39 (1999), 359–70.

51 Anon., ‘Notes’, The Nation, 74, 19 June 1902, p. 483.

52 Sofía Casanova, La mujer española en el extranjero. Conferencia dada en el Ateneo de Madrid el 9 de abril de 1910 (Madrid: R. Velasco, 1910), 27.

53 Anon., review of L[etitia] Higgin's Spanish Life in Town and Country, The London Quarterly and Holborn Review, 98 (1902), 402–03 (p. 402).

54 Anon., review of Higgin's Spanish Life in Town and Country, The Spectator, 89, 1 November 1902, pp. 636–37 (p. 636).

55 For these details, see Lynn Hulse, ‘Introduction’, in Letitia Higgin, Handbook of Embroidery, ed. Lady Marian Alford (East Molesey: Royal School of Needlework, 2010), 1–36 (pp. 4–5, 34–35). I am most grateful to Lynn Hulse for providing helpful information and confirmation of Letitia Higgin's identity, as found in the RSN archive.

56 Anon., review of Higgin's Spanish Life in Town and Country, New England Magazine, 26:5 (July 1902), 11.

57 Anon., review of Higgin's Spanish Life in Town and Country, The Dial, 33, 16 October 1902, p. 247. Reference to ‘Mr. Higgin’ can also be found in brief notices in articles in: The Fortnightly Review; in: The Review of Reviews, 29 (1904), 386; The Review of Reviews, 31 (1905), 613; and The American Review of Reviews, 32 (1905), 95.

58 Anon., ‘Notes’, The Nation, 74, 19 June 1902, p. 483; Anon., review of L[etitia] Higgin's Spanish Life in Town and Country, The London Quarterly and Holborn Review, 98 (1902), p. 402; Anon., review of Higgin's Spanish Life in Town and Country, The Spectator, 89, 1 November 1902, p. 637.

59 Anon., review of Higgin's Spanish Life in Town and Country, The Spectator, 89, 1 November 1902, p. 637.

60 Higgin, Spanish Life in Town and Country, 57, xi–xiv.

61 Kirsty Hooper, ‘Anglo-Spanish Edwardians (An Occasional Series). 1: Leticia [sic] “Lily” Higgin, 1837–1913’, <http://booksonspain.wordpress.com/2012/09/12/anglo-spanish-edwardians-an-occasional-series-1-leticia-lily-higgin-1837–1913/> (12 September 2012) (accessed 10 March 2014).

62 Frances Elliot, Diary of an Idle Woman in Spain, 2 vols (Leipzig: Bernhard Tauchnitz, 1884); ‘The Original Idle Woman’, <http://theidlewoman.blogspot.co.uk/p/the-real-idle-woman.html> (accessed 26 March 2014); <thepeerage.com> (accessed 26 March 2014).

63 Anon., ‘Notes’, The Nation, 74, 19 June 1902, p. 483.

64 ‘Higgin, George’, Dictionary of Irish Architects, <http://www.dia.ie/architects/view/2559/HIGGIN-GEORGE> (accessed 10 March 2014); George Higgin, Commercial and Industrial Spain (London: Effingham Wilson, Royal Exchange, 1886), 2, 4, 12, 15.

65 Higgin, Spanish Life in Town and Country, 5.

66 L[etitia] Higgin, ‘Alfonso XIII of Spain’, The Fortnightly Review, 77 (January–June 1905), 977–86 (p. 982).

67 Higgin, Spanish Life in Town and Country, 217.

68 L[etitia] Higgin, ‘Spain: Yesterday and To-Day. A Retrospect’, The Fortnightly Review, 75 (January–June 1904), 625–44 (p. 629).

69 Higgin, Spanish Life in Town and Country, 217.

70 Cross Fleury, ‘Time-Honoured Lancaster’. Historic Notes on the Ancient Borough of Lancaster (Lancaster: Eaton & Bulfield, Printers, 1891), 9–10; Materials for the History of the Church of Lancaster, ed. William Oliver Roper, 4 vols ([Manchester]: Printed for the Chetham Society, 1892–1906); Remains Historical and Literary Connected with the Palatine Counties of Lancaster and Chester, 110 vols, New Series (Manchester: Printed for the Chetham Society, 1906), LIX, 694, 756; also Margaret Bainbridge, ‘A Silverdale Gravestone: The Family of the Rev. Thomas Burrow’, The Mourholme Magazine of Local History, 1 (2008–09), 8–18 (p. 12).

71 Higgin, Spanish Life in Town and Country, 216.

72 See José Luis Sampedro Escolar, El conflictivo matrimonio de la princesa de Asturias en 1901 (Madrid: Asociación de Diplomados en Genealogía, Heráldica y Nobiliaria, 2002), <http://www.adghn.org/confe/2002/conflictivo_matrimonio.pdf> (accessed 15 May 2014).

73 Higgin, Spanish Life in Town and Country, 219, 223–25, 21.

74 Higgin, ‘Spain: Yesterday and To-Day’, 644 (note).

75 See Dorothy Burgess, Dream and Deed. The Story of Katharine Lee Bates (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1952); Judith Schwarz, ‘Yellow Clover: Katharine Lee Bates and Katharine Coman’, Frontiers, 4:1 (1979), 59–67; Ellen Leopold, ‘ “My Soul Is Among Lions”: Katharine Lee Bates's Account of the Illness and Death of Katharine Coman’, Legacy, 23:1 (2006), 60–73; Katharine Lee Bates, ‘For Katharine Coman's Family and Innermost Circle of Friends. Not for Print, Nor in Any Way for General Circulation’, Legacy, 23:1 (2006), 74–85.

76 Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Romantic Legends of Spain, trans. Cornelia Frances Bates & Katharine Lee Bates, 2^nd ed. (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1909 [1^st ed. 1909]); Carmen de Zulueta, Misioneras, feministas, educadoras: historia del Instituto Internacional (Madrid: Castalia, 1984), 127–35.

77 Burgess, Dream and Deed, 58, 64, 66; Zulueta, Misioneras, feministas, educadoras, 127; also Bates’ poem, ‘A Sunset Parable (In Memory of Alice Gordon Gulick)’, in Elizabeth Putnam Gordon, Alice Gordon Gulick. Her Life and Work in Spain (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1917), 15.

78 Jesse Lyman Hurlbut, The Story of Chautauqua (New York/London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1921), 12, 19, 22, 28; French Strother, ‘The Great American Forum’, The World's Work, 24:5 (September 1912), 551–64 (pp. 553, 560).

79 Anon., review of Katharine Lee Bates' Spanish Highways and Byways, The Bookman, 14 (September 1901), 89–90 (p. 89).

80 Anon., ‘An American Woman in Spain’, The Nation, 72, 11 April 1901, pp. 300–01 (p. 300); see also Hiram M. Stanley, review of Bates' Spanish Highways and Byways, The Dial, 30, 1 February 1901, pp. 75–76.

81 Bates, Spanish Highways and Byways, 1.

82 Burgess, Dream and Deed, 128.

83 Bates, In Sunny Spain, 289; see Gordon, Alice Gordon Gulick, 152–68, for Mrs Gulick's care of Spanish prisoners at Camp Long, New Hampshire.

84 Gordon, Alice Gordon Gulick, 215.

85 Bates, Spanish Highways and Byways, 359.

86 Burgess, Dream and Deed, 111–12; Schwarz, ‘Yellow Clover: Katharine Lee Bates and Katharine Coman’, 63–64, 65.

87 Schwarz, ‘Yellow Clover: Katharine Lee Bates and Katharine Coman’, 64.

88 Bates, Spanish Highways and Byways, 87.

89 Bates, Spanish Highways and Byways, 100.

90 Higgin, Spanish Life in Town and Country, 217.

91 Bates, Spanish Highways and Byways, 90, 91.

92 Bates, Spanish Highways and Byways, 213.

93 Henry Grattan Doyle, ‘Passing of Two Hispanists', Hispania (USA), 29:3 (1946), 411; William Milwitzky, ‘In Memoriam. John Driscoll Fitz-Gerald May 2, 1873–June 8, 1946’, Modern Language Journal, 30:6 (1946), 365–67.

94 ‘Fitz-Gerald, John Driscoll’, Biographical Dictionary of American Educators, ed. John F. Ohles, 3 vols (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1978), I, 464–65. See also John D. Fitz-Gerald, ‘The Opportunity and the Responsibility of the Teacher of Spanish’, Hispania (USA), 1 (Organization number) (November 1917), 11–18; and John D. Fitz-Gerald, ‘Modern Foreign Languages—Their Importance to American Citizens', The Modern Language Journal, 9:7 (1925), 397–412.

95 Milwitzky, ‘In Memoriam. John Driscoll Fitz-Gerald’, 366.

96 Genealogical and Memorial History of the State of New Jersey, ed. Francis Bazley, 4 vols (New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Co., 1910), IV, 1460–62.

97 The Semi-Centennial Alumni Record of the University of Illinois, ed. Franklin W. Scott (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois, 1918), 872.

98 Anon., review of John D. Fitz-Gerald's Rambles in Spain, The Literary Digest, 5 November 1910, pp. 815–16; Anon., The American Review of Reviews, 42 (1910), 638; Anon., The American Educational Review, 32 (1911), 373; Blake, ‘Spain of To-Day’, The Dial, 50, 16 April 1911, p. 308.

99 Fitz-Gerald, Rambles in Spain, viii, 4, 5.

100 Fitz-Gerald, Rambles in Spain, 148.

101 Andújar, Spain of To-Day, 13, 45.

102 Andújar, Spain of To-Day, 46, 86, 105, 107, 109, 162, 164, 199–200.

103 Anon., ‘Spain in Art and Literature’, The New York Times, 31 July 1909, p. 17.

104 K., ‘The Tragedy of Catholic Spain’, Signs of the Times, 29 August 1921, pp. 137–38 (p. 137).

105 Andújar, Spain of To-Day, 219–20.

106 Steven L. Driever, ‘Geographic Narratives in the South American Travelogues of Harry A. Franck: 1917–1943’, Journal of Latin American Geography, 10:1 (2011), 53–69 (p. 55).

107 Franck, Four Months Afoot in Spain, 59, 67, 120–21, 136, 163, 167–68, 249–51. For reviews, see: Anon., review of Harry A. Franck's Four Months Afoot in Spain, The Dial, 52, 1 January 1912, pp. 26–27; G. D. Hubbard, review of Franck's Four Months Afoot in Spain, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, 44:1 (1912), 61.

108 Richard Aitken, ‘Bogue Luffmann's Principles of Gardening for Australia’, The La Trobe Journal, 74 (2004), 62–70.

109 Joseph Conrad, ‘A Happy Wanderer’ (1910), in his Notes on Life and Letters (Garden City/New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1926), 61–65 (pp. 62, 64).

110 George G. Brownell, ‘An Impressionist in Spain’, The Dial, 50, 16 February 1911, pp. 127–28; for other reviews, see: Anon., ‘New York Literary Notes', The New York Times, 13 August 1910, p. 16; Anon., ‘Spain in Transition’, The New York Times, 20 August 1910, p. 23.

111 Luffmann, Quiet Days, 311–12.

112 Luffmann, Quiet Days, vi, 128, 141, 199, 312.

113 Luffmann, Quiet Days, 165.

114 Luffmann, A Vagabond in Spain, 2^nd ed. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1895), 161.

115 Luffmann, Quiet Days, 312.

116 Andrew J. Shipman, ‘Mr. Luffmann's Spain’, The New York Times, 10 September 1910, p. 26.

117 Moreby Acklom, ‘Mr. Luffmann and His Spain’, The New York Times, 17 September 1910, p. 32.

118 Condé B. Pallen, ‘Biographical Sketch of Andrew Jackson Shipman’, in A Memorial of Andrew J. Shipman. His Life and Writings, ed. C. B. Pallen (New York: Encyclopedia Press, 1916), xlv–lxv (p. lxiii).

119 See: Anon., ‘New York Literary Notes', The New York Times, 5 November 1910, p. 32; Walter M. Gallichan, ‘The Real Spain’, The Bookman, 39:229 (October 1910), 46–47; Anon., ‘Spain from Within. An “Impartial” Book’, London Monitor and New Era, 8 October 1910, p. 2; Anon., ‘Spain and Its Future. Is Civil War Impending?’, Nelson Evening Mail (New Zealand), 2 November 1910, p. 4; Anon., review of Rafael Shaw's Spain from Within, The Spectator, 10 September 1910, p. 393 (also, Shaw's letter to the editor, The Spectator, 1 October 1910, p. 17); Anon., The Geographical Journal, 36:6 (December 1910), 718; Anon., The Tablet, 28 January 1911, p. 126; Blake, ‘Spain of To-Day’, The Dial, 50, 16 April 1911, pp. 308–09; Anon., ‘Notes', The Nation, 92:2375, 5 January 1911, pp. 18–19.

120 Mary J. Serrano, ‘Inside Views of Spain’, The New York Times, 29 January 1911, p. 55.

121 Acklom, ‘Mr. Luffmann and His Spain’, 32.

122 Shaw, Spain from Within, 8, 64, 221, 230.

123 Anon., review of Rafael Shaw's Spain from Within, The Spectator, 10 September 1910, p. 393; also Serrano, ‘Inside Views of Spain’, The New York Times, 29 January 1911, p. 55.

124 Sylvester Waters, ‘Spain and Clericalism’ [letter], New Zealand Herald, 15 November 1910, p. 3.

125 Anon., ‘Spain from Within. An “Impartial” Book’, London Monitor and New Era, 8 October 1910, p. 2; see also Anon., The Tablet, 28 January 1911, p. 126.

126 Gallichan, ‘The Real Spain’, The Bookman, 39:229 (October 1910), 47.

127 Anon., ‘Spain and Its Future. Is Civil War Impending?’, Nelson Evening Mail, 2 November 1910, p. 4.

128 Shaw, Spain from Within, 89, 16, 29–30, 140–41, 147, 311, 317–18.

129 Shaw, Spain from Within, 147–49, 170, 189–90, 235; also Fitz-Gerald, Rambles in Spain, 21; Bensusan, Home Life in Spain, 61; Gasquoine Hartley, Things Seen in Spain, 234.

130 Perceval Gibbon, ‘The Ferrer Trial. An Account of the Court Martial and Execution of Ferrer, the Spanish Radical’, McClure's Magazine, 34:3 (January 1910), 327–37 (p. 332); Anon., ‘The American Catholics and the Ferrer Trial’, McClure's Magazine, 35:6 (October 1910), 697; S. Edwin Megargee, letter, McClure's Magazine, 35:6 (October 1910), 698–700 (p. 700); W. Joseph Mockenhaupt, letter, McClure's Magazine, 35:6 (October 1910), 700–01 (p. 701); Andrew J. Shipman, ‘An American Catholic's View of the Ferrer Case’, in A Memorial of Andrew J. Shipman, ed. Pallen, 32–46 (originally published in McClure's Magazine, 35:6 [October 1910]).

131 William Archer, ‘The Life and Death of Ferrer’, McClure's Magazine, 36:1 (November 1910), 43–59; ‘The Trial and Death of Ferrer. Part II’, McClure's Magazine, 36:2 (December 1910), 229–42; Andrew J. Shipman, ‘McClure's, Archer and Ferrer’, in A Memorial of Andrew J. Shipman, ed. Pallen, 47–65.

132 Advertisements, The Converted Catholic, 28:2 (February 1911); Augustine Baumann, ‘The Church Question in Spain’, The Converted Catholic, 28:2 (February 1911), 69–79.

133 William Archer, The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer (Delanco: The Notable Trials Library [Gryphon Editions], 2000 [1^st ed. 1911]), 102–04, 140–41; Upton Sinclair, The Profits of Religion (Amherst: Prometheus Books, 2000 [1^st ed. 1918]), 131–33; Gerald Brenan, The Spanish Labyrinth (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 1971 [1^st ed. 1943]), 34, 349.

134 Lawrence Peters, ‘Bensusan, Samuel Levy’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2004), <http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/101066987/Samuel-Bensusan> (accessed 10 March 2014); Bensusan, Home Life in Spain, 81, 46, 47.

135 Blake, ‘Spain of To-Day’, The Dial, 50, 16 April 1911, p. 308; also Anon., ‘The New Books', The Outlook, 97:16, 22 April 1911, p. 942; for a mixed review: Anon., ‘Home Life in Spain’, The New York Times, 5 March 1911, p. 54.

136 Walter Dwight, SJ, ‘The Jesuit Myth Once More’, America, 4:18, 11 February 1911, pp. 416–18 (pp. 417, 418); also, Anon., ‘New Books', The Sacred Heart Review, 45:4, 14 January 1911, pp. 56–57 (p. 57).

137 For more information, see ‘Roulet, Mrs. Mary F. (Nixon)’, in The American Catholic Who's Who, ed. Georgina Pell Curtis (St Louis: B. Herder, 1911), 562–63; Virginia Watson, ‘Elizabeth Boyle O'Reilly’ [letter], The New York Times, 26 September 1922, p. 16.

138 Mary F. Nixon[-Roulet], With a Pessimist in Spain, 2^nd ed. (Saint Louis: B. Herder, 1899 [1^st ed. 1897]), 360.

139 Advertisement, The Gospel Messenger, 13 January 1934, p. 2.

140 Blake, ‘Spain of To-Day’, The Dial, 50, 16 April 1911, p. 308; Anon., ‘The New Books', The Outlook, 97:16, 22 April 1911, p. 942; Anon., review of Mary F. Nixon-Roulet's The Spaniard at Home, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, 43:5 (1911), 383.

141 Nixon-Roulet, The Spaniard at Home, 154, 159–60, 161–65.

142 Mary J. Serrano, ‘Miss O'Reilly's Heroic Spain’, The New York Times, 7 January 1911, BR5; Blake, ‘Spain of To-Day’, The Dial, 50, 16 April 1911, pp. 308–09; Anon., ‘The New Books', The Outlook, 97:16, 22 April 1911, pp. 941–42; Anon., ‘Notes', The Nation, 92:2375, 5 January 1911, p. 19; Anon., ‘The New Books', The American Review of Reviews, 43 (January 1911), 123.

143 O'Reilly, Heroic Spain, 8, 10, 65, 208–09, 429.

144 Marcelino Menéndez [y] Pelayo, Epistolario, ed. Manuel Revuelta Sañudo, 23 vols (Madrid: Fundación Universitaria Española, 1989), XXI, 268.

145 Anon., ‘The New Books', The Outlook, 97:16, 22 April 1911, p. 942.

146 ‘O'Reilly, Mary Boyle’, in The American Catholic Who's Who, ed. Curtis, 498.

147 See A. G. Evans, Fanatic Heart: A Life of John Boyle O'Reilly, 1844–1890 (Nedlands: Univ. of Western Australia Press, 1997).

148 Anon., ‘Elizabeth O'Reilly Defends Her Sanity’, The New York Times, 17 October 1919, p. 8; Anon., ‘Sane but Locked up for Months with Lunatics', The Washington Post, 25 January 1920, p. 2; Anon., ‘Locked up for Months with Lunatics: Strange Experiences of a Sane Woman’, Syracuse Herald, 25 January 1920, pp. 3, 11.

  * Disclosure Statement: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.