Breasts, Hair and Hormones: The Anatomy of Gender Difference in Spain, 1880–1940

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Notes

¹Giuliana Di Febo, ‘ “Nuevo Estado”, nacionalcatolicismo y género’, in Mujeres y hombres en la España franquista. Sociedad, economía, política, cultura, ed. Gloria Nielfa Cristóbal (Madrid: Editorial Complutense, 2003), 19–44; ‘ “La Cuna, la Cruz y la Bandera”. Primer franquismo y modelos de género’, in Historia de las mujeres en España y América Latina. IV. Del siglo XX a los umbrales del XXI, ed. I. Morant (Madrid: Cátedra, 2006), 217–18.

²An early analysis was Giuliana Di Febo, ‘Orígenes del debate feminista en España. La escuela krausista y la Institución Libre de Enseñanza (1870–1890)’, Sistema, 12 (1976), 49–82. See also Susan Kirkpatrick, ‘Spanish Liberalism and the Romantic Subject’, in Las Románticas: Women Writers and Subjectivity in Spain, 1835–1850 (Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: Univ. of California Press, 1989), 37–61; Bridget Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar. Galdós and the Ideology of Domesticity in Spain (Chapel Hill: Dept of Romance Languages, Univ. of North Carolina/Valencia: Artes Gráficas Soler, 1991); Catherine Jagoe, Ambiguous Angels: Gender in the Novels of Galdós (Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: Univ. of California Press, 1994); Jo Labanyi, Gender and Modernization in the Spanish Realist novel (Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2000).

³Teresa Ortiz, ‘El discurso médico sobre las mujeres en la España del primer tercio del siglo veinte’, in Las mujeres en Andalucía. Actas del 2° encuentro interdisciplinar de estudios de la mujer en Andalucía, ed. M. T. López Beltrán (Málaga: Diputación Provincial de Málaga, 1993), I, 107–38; Catherine Jagoe, ‘Sexo y género en la medicina del siglo XIX’, in Catherine Jagoe, Alda Blanco & Cristina Enríquez de Salamanca, La mujer en los discursos de género. Textos y contextos en el siglo XIX (Barcelona: Icaria, 1998), 305–67; Nerea Aresti, Médicos, donjuanes y mujeres modernas. Los ideales de feminidad y masculinidad en el primer tercio del siglo XX (Bilbao: Univ. del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, 2001); Teresa Ortiz Gómez, Medicina, historia y género. 130 años de investigación feminista (Oviedo: KRK Ediciones, 2006).

⁴An exception in this sense is Aresti, Médicos, donjuanes y mujeres modernas, 137–43, where the author focuses on the relations between masculinity, values, productivity, gender and work in the first third of the twentieth century. Previously, we have analysed how a weakened, threatened or broken masculinity was related to certain political and racial or biological traits of the Spanish nation in Richard Cleminson and Francisco Vázquez García, ‘ “In Search of Men”: Regeneracionismo and the Crisis of Masculinity (1898–1936)’, in ‘Los Invisibles’: A History of Male Homosexuality in Spain, 1850–1940 (Cardiff: Univ. of Wales Press, 2007), 175–215. Outside of the chronological framework of this article, Michael Richards, A Time of Silence: Civil War and the Culture of Repression in Franco's Spain, 1936–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 1998); Mary Vincent, ‘The Martyrs and Saints: Masculinity and the Construction of the Francoist Crusade’, History Workshop Journal, 47 (1999), 68–98 and ‘La reafirmación de la masculinidad en la cruzada franquista’, Cuadernos de Historia Contemporánea, 28 (2006), 135–51; and, Brian D. Bunk, ‘Grandsons of the Cid: Masculinity, Sexual Violence, and the Destruction of the Family’, in Ghosts of Passion: Martyrdom, Gender, and the Origins of the Spanish Civil War (Durham, NC/London: Duke U. P., 2007), 88–119, have discussed masculinity with respect to Francoism.

⁵Will Fisher, in ‘The Renaissance Beard: Masculinity in Early Modern England’, Renaissance Quarterly, 54 (2001), 155–87, has pointed out ‘as Katherine Park and Robert Nye have recently suggested, there is a tendency within current scholarship to concentrate primarily on the female body and the ways in which female physiology was understood and materialized’ (184). He refers to Katherine Park & Robert A. Nye, ‘Destiny Is Anatomy’, The New Republic, 18 February 1991, 53–57 (p. 56).

⁶For some recent work on materiality and gender see Jane M. Ussher, ‘Introduction. Towards a Material-Discursive Analysis of Madness, Sexuality and Reproduction’, in Body Talk: The Material and Discursive Regulation of Sexuality, Madness and Reproduction, ed. Jane M. Ussher (London/New York: Routledge, 1997), 1–9, and Roberta Gilchrist, Gender and Material Culture: The Archaeology of Religious Women (London: Routledge, 1994).

⁷As Bryan S. Turner in Regulating Bodies: Essays in Medical Sociology (London/New York: Routledge, 1992) suggests, the ‘use’ of the body and the activities undertaken by it ‘require an organic foundation, but the elaboration of these potentialities requires a cultural context’ (36).

⁸The reliance on the analysis of parts of the body and their relation to the whole draws to some degree on the notion of the ‘fragmented’ body, as articulated in Fragments for a History of the Human Body, ed. Michel Feher, Ramona Naddaff and Nadia Tazi, 3 vols (New York: Zone, 1989), and Incorporations, ed. Jonathan Crary and Sanford Kwinter (New York: Zone, 1992). An early analysis of the different types of bodily activity and the influence of the ‘habitus’, defined as collective habits and customs, to describe body practices is contained in Marcel Mauss, ‘Techniques of the Body’ [1934], in Incorporations, ed. Crary and Kwinter, 455–77. From an ‘interdisciplinary’ sociological approach to the ‘culture somatique’ of the body in medicine, food and sport see Luc Boltanski, ‘Les Usages sociaux du corps’, Annales: Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations, 26 (1971), 205–33.

⁹See Georges Canguilhem, The Normal and the Pathological, trans. Carolyn R. Fawcett (New York: Zone, 1989).

¹⁰Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Vol. I, An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley, (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990); Francisco Vázquez García and Andrés Moreno Mengíbar, Sexo y razón. Una genealogía de la moral sexual en España (siglos XVI–XX) (Madrid: Akal, 1997).

¹¹See Karen Harvey, ‘The Substance of Sexual Difference: Change and Persistence in Representations of the Body in Eighteenth-century England’, Gender and History, 14 (2002), 202–23. See also her ‘The Century of Sex? Gender, Bodies, and Sexuality in the Long Eighteenth Century’, The Historical Journal, 45 (2002), 899–916.

¹²Harvey, ‘The Substance of Sexual Difference’, 204.

¹³Nancy L. Stepan cited in Harvey, ‘The Substance of Sexual Difference’, 203 (original emphasis). Harvey refers to Nancy Leys Stepan's ‘Race, Gender, Science and Citizenship’, Gender and History, 10 (1998), 26–52 (quotation from p. 29). For some examples of critique of Laqueur, see Park and Nye, ‘Destiny Is Anatomy’, and Michael Stolberg, ‘A Woman Down to Her Bones. The Anatomy of Sexual Difference in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries’, Isis, 94 (2003), 274–99. See also the responses to Stolberg by Laqueur, ‘Sex in the Flesh’, Isis, 94 (2003), 300–06, and Londa Schiebinger, ‘Skelettestreit’, Isis, 94 (2003), 307–13.

¹⁴Ann Oakley, Sex, Gender and Society (London: Temple Smith, 1972); Gayle Rubin, ‘The Traffic in Women: Notes on the “Political Economy” of Sex’, in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R. Reiter (New York/London: Monthly Review Press, 1975), 157–210.

¹⁷Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body, 2.

¹⁵Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London/New York: Routledge, 1994), 1–2.

¹⁶‘One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’ (Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, trans. H. M. Parshley [London: David Campbell Publishers, 1993 (original French ed. 1949)], 281).

¹⁸Lynda Birke, Feminism and the Biological Body (Edinburgh: Edinburgh U. P., 1999).

¹⁹Birke, Feminism and the Biological Body, 1–2; original emphasis.

²⁰Birke, Feminism and the Biological Body, 25.

²¹The literature on the body is now extensive. For a recent view on history and the body, see Mark S. R. Jenner and Bertrand O. Taithe, ‘The Historiographical Body’, in Companion to Medicine in the Twentieth Century, ed. Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (London/New York: Routledge, 2003), 187–200.

²²Bernice Hausman, Changing Sex: Transsexualism, Technology, and the Idea of Gender (Durham, NC/London: Duke U. P., 1995), 8–9. Among many examples that can be consulted see Donna J. Haraway, ‘ “Gender” for a Marxist Dictionary: The Sexual Politics of a Word’, in her Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (London: Free Association Books, 1991), 127–48.

²³Londa Schiebinger, Feminism and the Body (Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2000), 1.

²⁴Schiebinger, Feminism and the Body, 2–3. Not forgetting that the body has materiality is discussed from a number of perspectives. From a feminist sociological perspective, see Hilary Rose, ‘Gay Brains, Gay Genes and Feminist Science Theory’, in Sexual Cultures: Communities, Values and Intimacy, ed. Jeffrey Weeks and Janet Holland (Houndmills: Macmillan Press, 1996), 53–72 (especially pp. 64–67). From an analysis of the dangers for social theory and lived experience of losing the body from a social and material perspective in relation to cyberspace, see A. R. Stone, ‘Will the Real Body Please Stand Up? Boundary Stories about Virtual Cultures’, in Cyberspace: First Steps, ed. M. Benedikt (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), 81–118.

²⁵Birke, Feminism and the Biological Body, 2.

²⁶Birke, Feminism and the Biological Body, 7.

²⁷For an existentialist phenomenological approach, see Iris Marion Young, On Female Body Experience: ‘Throwing Like a Girl’ and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2005). Young relies on Maurice Merleau-Ponty's analysis of the body in his Phenomenology of Perception, trans. Colin Smith (London, Routledge, 1962), especially pp. 67–199, and this is most clearly developed in her ‘Lived Body vs. Gender: Reflections on Social Structure and Subjectivity’, in On Female Body Experience, 12–26. For a similar perspective see Elizabeth Grosz, Volatile Bodies: Toward a Corporeal Feminism (Bloomington: Indiana U. P., 1994) and for a more discursive approach see Judith Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’ (New York/London: Routledge, 1993).

³⁰Butler, Bodies That Matter, 1.

²⁸Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York/London: Routledge, 1990). Butler's position is not dissimilar to that sustained by some Spanish feminist analysis. The concept of ‘discurso genérico o sexuado’ (gendered or sexualized discourse) posits an interdependent process of construction of ‘gender’ and ‘sex’ as proposed in Amelia Valcárcel, Sexo y filosofía. Sobre ‘mujer’ y ‘poder’ (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1991) discussed in Iris M. Zavala, ‘Las formas y funciones de una teoría crítica feminista. Feminismo dialógico’, in Breve historia feminista de la literatura española (en lengua castellana). Vol. I. Teoría feminista: discursos y diferencia, ed. Myriam Díaz-Diocaretz & Iris M. Zavala (Barcelona: Anthropos/San Juan: Univ. de Puerto Rico, 1993), 27–76 (p. 35).

²⁹We follow the account given by Young in On Female Body Experience, 14–15.

³¹Butler, Bodies That Matter, 2.

³²Butler, Bodies That Matter, 2.

³³Judith Butler, Undoing Gender (New York/London: Routledge, 2004).

³⁴See Young's argument in ‘Lived Body vs. Gender’. Here, she discusses the work of Toril Moi, ‘What Is a Woman?’, in What Is a Woman and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford U. P., 1999), 3–120.

³⁵Young, On Female Body Experience, 22.

³⁶Grosz, Volatile Bodies, 236–48.

³⁷Anne Fausto-Sterling, Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality (New York: Basic Books, 2000).

³⁸See Aristotle, History of Animals (cited in Alberto Salamanca Ballesteros, Monstruos, ostentos y hermafroditas [Granada: Univ. de Granada, 2007], 294). See, for example, the discussion on lactating men in Fray Antonio de Fuentelapeña, El ente dilucidado. Tratado de monstruos y fantasmas, ed. Javier Ruiz (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1978 [1^st ed. 1676]), 253. In addition, around 1632, doctors such as the court physician Juan de Quiñones and Gerónimo de la Huarta had no difficulty in affirming that male Jews menstruated periodically just like women. See J. L. Beusterien, ‘Jewish Male Menstruation in Seventeenth-century Spain’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 73 (1999), 447–56. One way of according infamy to Jews was precisely by attributing to them the category of ‘imperfect males’, that is, women.

³⁹Ángel Pulido y Fernández, ‘Lactancia paterna’, Revista de Medicina y Cirugía Prácticas [henceforth RMCP], VI (1880), 305–16; 363–75; 473–81; 527–38; RMCP, VII (1880), 12–22; 55–64. These articles appeared as Ángel Pulido Fernández, Lactancia paterna (y ginecomastia) (Madrid: Moya y Plaza, 1880), published by the same publisher of the RMCP. We have not been able to consult this work. The ten-part work, Pulido states, formed an address to the Spanish Gynaecological Society of which he was a member. Further details of ‘bearded women’, lactating men and hermaphrodites are given in Ballesteros, Monstruos, 283–312.

⁴⁰Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 305–10. In addition, the phenomenon of bearded women who suckled children was sufficiently interesting to merit the attention of the work of José de Ribera, whose painting ‘Maddalena Ventura degli Abruzzi con su marido e hijo’ (1631) depicts such a phenomenon. On this painting see Ballesteros, Monstruos, 293, and Fisher, ‘The Renaissance Beard’, 170–72.

⁴¹Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 311.

⁴²Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 312. Original orthography retained in this quotation and henceforth.

⁴³See Ornella Moscucci, ‘Hermaphroditism and Sex Difference: The Construction of Gender in Victorian England’, in Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780–1945, ed. Marina Benjamin (Oxford/Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1991), 174–99. See Pedro Felipe Monlau's comment, ‘En la matriz retumban indefectiblemente todas las afecciones físicas y morales de la mujer: el útero hace que la mujer sea lo que es’ (Higiene del matrimonio [1846]), cited in Pura Fernández, ‘Moral social y sexual en el siglo XIX: la reivindicación de la sexualidad femenina en la novela naturalista radical’, in Breve historia feminista de la literatura española (en lengua castellana). Vol. III. La mujer en la literatura española. Modos de representación desde el siglo XVIII a la actualidad, ed. Iris M. Zavala (Barcelona: Anthropos/San Juan: Univ. de Puerto Rico, 1996), 81–113 (p. 100).

⁴⁴Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body, 8.

⁴⁵Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body, 19.

⁴⁶Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 316.

⁴⁷Both quotations from Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 363.

⁴⁸Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 364.

⁴⁹Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 365.

⁵⁰This is discussed more fully, with particular reference to hermaphroditism, in Richard Cleminson and Francisco Vázquez García, ‘The Hermaphrodite, Fecundity and Military Efficiency: Dangerous Subjects in the Emerging Liberal Order of Nineteenth-century Spain’, in Sexual Histories of the Body, ed. Sarah Toulalan and Kate Fisher (Manchester: Manchester U. P., forthcoming).

⁵¹Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 367–68.

⁵²All references from Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 367–68.

⁵³Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 372. See also Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 473–76. This lactation common in childhood continued in women. Women were seen as a continuation of children, as Marañón in due course would argue. Men developed fullness after the childhood phase.

⁵⁴See Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 535. It was possible that the substance secreted was not milk and breasts could be monstrous and effeminate: it was necessary to remember that ‘la ginecomastia no denota más que una monstruosidad de bulto, una aberracion de dimensiones, chocante á la inspeccion visual, y que no tiene necesidad alguna de alcanzar la glándula mamaria’; ‘pechos monstruosos y afeminados’ are also mentioned.

⁵⁵See the table of fifty-nine cases reproduced in Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 14–16.

⁵⁶Pulido, ‘Lactancia paterna’, RMCP, VI, 18–19.

⁵⁷Gregorio Marañón, ‘Nuevas ideas sobre el problema de la intersexualidad y sobre la cronología de los sexos’ (original 1928), in Obras completas, ed. Alfredo Juderías, 10 vols (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1966–1977), IV (1968), 165–83; La evolución de la sexualidad y los estados intersexuales (original 1930) in Obras completas, VIII, Ensayos (1972), 499–710. For an analysis of the principal tenets of Marañón's theories, see Cleminson and Vázquez, ‘Los Invisibles’, 98–114; T. F. Glick, ‘Marañón, Intersexuality and the Biological Construction of Gender in 1920s Spain’, Cronos, 8 (2005), 121–37; Sarah Wright, ‘Gregorio Marañón and “The Cult of Sex”: Effeminacy and Intersexuality in “The Psychopathology of Don Juan” (1924)’, BSS, LXXXI (2004), 717–38.

⁵⁸Glick understands this interpretation as part of Marañón's drawing on Darwin. See Glick, ‘Marañón, Intersexuality and the Biological Construction of Gender in 1920s Spain’, 122–24.

⁵⁹Marañón wrote of the ‘superación’ of the feminine by the masculine in Marañón, ‘Nuevas ideas sobre el problema de la intersexualidad’, 180–81. What happened, then, is that ‘Los dos sexos no se oponen … sino que, sencillamente, se suceden’ (182; original emphasis).

⁶⁰Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 513, in tabular form. The notion of primary and s econdary characters was invented by John Hunter (1870) according to Aresti, Médicos, 121. See also C. Barker Jorgensen, John Hunter, A. A. Berthold and the Origins of Endocrinology (Odense: Odense U. P., 1971).

⁶¹Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 590–93.

⁶²For just one example, see the multiple category of ‘sexual invert’ according to gender and sexual deviance and ‘active’ and ‘passive’ predilections as advanced by C. Bernaldo de Quirós and J. M. Llanas Aguilaniedo, La mala vida en Madrid. Estudio psicosociológico con dibujos y fotografías del natural (Madrid: B. Rodríguez Sierra, 1901), 259–62.

⁶³Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 594.

⁶⁴Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 594.

⁶⁵Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 595.

⁶⁶Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 595 (original emphasis).

⁶⁷Marañón also believed that gynaecomastia, as a phenomenon related to lower developmental levels, was present in 36% of adolescents. See Gregorio Marañón, ‘Los estados intersexuales en la pubertad’, Obras completas, III (1967), 511–23. This was the text of a conference given in Paris in 1937.

⁶⁸Fisher, ‘The Renaissance Beard’, 156 (original emphasis).

⁶⁹Fisher, ‘The Renaissance Beard’, 155–56.

⁷⁰Edward Behrend-Martínez, in ‘Manhood and the Neutered Body in Early Modern Spain’, Journal of Social History, 38 (2005), 1073–93, writes ‘Castrati had the reputation for frivolity, vanity, enjoying perfumes, using make-up, emotionality, instability, and immoderation. Their castrated bodies were described as corpulent, lanky, soft, and hairless’ (1075). See also Harvey, ‘The Substance of Sexual Difference’, 215, where the author cites Londa Schiebinger, Nature's Body: Sexual Politics and the Making of Modern Science (London: HarperCollins, 1993), 120, to this effect.

⁷¹Harvey, ‘The Substance of Sexual Difference’, 217.

⁷²Harvey, ‘The Substance of Sexual Difference’, 219.

⁷³For Marañón, in all homosexuals there was ‘una base orgánica de intersexualidad’. See Gregorio Marañón, ‘Mi concepto biológico de la homosexualidad’ (1936) (prologue to Leonídio Ribeiro, Homosexualidad y Endocrinología [1938]), in Obras completas, I (1966), 169–78 (p. 170).

⁷⁴Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 513.

⁷⁵Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 523–24.

⁷⁶Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 524. Bearded women and excessive hair growth were understood as marvellous or ‘monstrous’ in the medieval and early modern period. See Ballesteros, Monstruos, 313–40; Lorraine Daston and Katherine Park, Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150–1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998), 192.

⁷⁷Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 524.

⁷⁸Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 524. Marañón did acknowledge that fashions had changed and now short hair was more common in women. But this ‘sexual mutilation’ would probably be short-lived. In women it responded to a desire to bring them closer to infancy rather than to virility (525). The role of long hair in affording gender confusion to indigenous peoples in America can be seen in Columbus’ son Ferdinand's comments on the natives’ habit of tying their hair back ‘like that of women in Castile’ (The Four Voyages of Christopher Colombus, ed. J. M. Cohen [Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969], 98–99).

⁷⁹Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 530.

⁸⁰Marañón, La evolución de la sexualidad, 612. In addition to differences in hair, female homosexuals were held to have different spacing in their teeth, male homosexuals’ voices were different from those of other men and their skin was more delicate and feminine. Their skin was also, following H irschfeld's observations, warmer than heterosexual men's (612). Gynaecomastia, however, had not particularly been found in male homosexuals in Marañón's experience (613). Many other observations and some identical ones are contained in Marañón's previous ‘Sobre el significado sexual del cabello’ (1928), in Obras completas, IV (1968), 149–64. Of related interest from Marañón's Vida e historia (2^nd ed. 1940) are ‘Sentido jerárquico del sombrero’ and ‘Sentido sexual del sombrero’, in Obras completas, IX (1973), 185–86 and 186–87. Glick, ‘Marañón, Intersexuality and the Biological Construction of Gender in 1920s Spain’, holds that Marañón broke with biological determinism and promoted acceptance of inversion: ‘He notably widened the bounds of the “normal” and shrank the range of the “perversions” ’ (135). Our interpretation is that, while certainly Marañón was ‘progressive’ in the sense that he opposed social and legal sanction against, for example, homosexuals, his theories widened the bounds of the ‘normal’ but at the same time extended the range of the pathological to cover many more expressions of sexuality. At the end of the day, intersexuality in all its forms was to be fought against and removed as far as possible.

⁸¹Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body, 8. For a general overview of the rise of hormonal, or endocrinological theories, see Diana Long Hall and Thomas F. Glick, ‘Endocrinology: A Brief Introduction’, Journal of the History of Biology, 9 (1976), 229–33. On Spain, see Thomas F. Glick, ‘On the Diffusion of a New Specialty: Marañón and the “Crisis” of Endocrinology in Spain’, Journal of the History of Biology, 9 (1976), 287–300.

⁸²Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body, 15–16; 19–20.

⁸³Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body, 21. Oudshoorn, ‘Endocrinologists’, 176, discussing developments in the late 1930s, remarks that even though the idea of sex chromosomes being agents of sex determination had been proposed in 1906, techniques for detecting them were not yet available: ‘In this context it can be understood that the expectations were high that sex hormones would provide scientists with a tool to determine the sex of hermaphrodites and to explain the “feminine” character of homosexual men’. As seen below, Marañón embraced this possibility.

⁸⁴Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body, 22.

⁸⁵Quoted in Diana Long Hall, ‘The Critic and the Advocate: Contrasting British Views on the State of Endocrinology in the Early 1920s’, Journal of the History of Biology, 9 (1976), 269–85 (p. 273).

⁸⁶On this process see Merriley Borell, ‘Organotherapy, British Physiology, and Discovery of the Internal Secretions’, Journal of the History of Biology, 9 (1976), 235–68; ‘Organotherapy and the Emergence of Reproductive Endocrinology’, Journal of the History of Biology, 18 (1985), 1–30 (p. 3).

⁸⁷Quoted in Nelly Oudshoorn, ‘Endocrinologists and the Conceptualization of Sex, 1920–1940’, Journal of the History of Biology, 23 (1990), 163–86 (p. 166).

⁸⁸Borell, ‘Organotherapy, British Physiology’, 266.

⁸⁹Oudshoorn, ‘Endocrinologists’, 165.

⁹⁰Borell, ‘Organotherapy and the Emergence’, 5.

⁹¹Gregorio Marañón, ‘Estado actual de la doctrina de las secreciones internas’, in Obras completas, II (1966), 9–89. This material formed Marañón's acceptance speech into the Royal National Academy of Medicine in March 1922.

⁹²Marañón, ‘Estado actual de la doctrina’, 15.

⁹³See Glick, ‘On the Diffusion of a New Specialty’, 290. Gley's talks were published as Quatre leçons sur les sécrétions internes (Paris, 1920). Gley's criticism also turned on Marañón for his ‘uncritical’ use of organic extracts in the clinic. Marañón defended himself from Gley by alleging the latter's ‘lack of perfect comprehension of the [original] Spanish text’ of Marañón's Las glándulas de secreción interna y las enfermedades de la nutrición (the second edition was published 1916), as mentioned in Marañón, ‘Estado actual de la doctrina’, 15–16; 26, n. 1. Hall traces this emerging crisis to two articles published in 1923, one by Starling giving an up-beat account of the discipline and the other by Vincent Swale who spoke of a crisis in endocrinology that ‘threatened its existence as a respectable medical and scientific specialty’ (Hall, ‘The Critic and the Advocate’, 269). By 1937 the British Medical Journal had noted that indiscriminate endocrinology had brought about an inevitable reaction and the field had fallen into disfavour (285).

⁹⁴Marañón, ‘Estado actual de la doctrina’, 89.

⁹⁵Marañón, ‘Estado actual de la doctrina’, 29–60.

⁹⁶Marañón, ‘Estado actual de la doctrina’, 41.

⁹⁷Marañón, ‘Estado actual de la doctrina’, 42.

⁹⁸Marañón, ‘Estado actual de la doctrina’, 43.

⁹⁹Gregorio Marañón, ‘Los estados intersexuales en la especie humana’ (1927), in Obras completas, III, Conferencias (1967), 155–85 (p. 175; emphasis in original).

¹⁰⁰Marañón, ‘Los estados’, 175.

¹⁰¹Marañón, ‘Los estados’, 175.

¹⁰²Marañón, ‘Los estados’, 175.

¹⁰³Marañón, ‘Los estados’, 176. Marañón also elaborated on these rather more social methods in ‘La educación sexual y la diferenciación sexual’, Generación Consciente, 31 (1926), 15–18, and, ‘La educación sexual y la diferenciación sexual’, Generación Consciente, 32 (1926), 42–45. The question was discussed throughout Marañón's 1930 La evolución and especially in the last chapter of this book, ‘¿Es posible favorecer el auge de la diferenciación sexual?’, 699–710.

¹⁰⁷Oudshoorn, ‘Endocrinologists’, 171.

¹⁰⁴Oudshoorn, ‘Endocrinologists’, 169.

¹⁰⁵Oudshoorn, ‘Endocrinologists’, 169–70.

¹⁰⁶Oudshoorn, ‘Endocrinologists’, 170. Zondek argued that the finding of this female hormone in male urine constituted a ‘paradox’ whereby ‘the male sex is recognized by a high oestrogenic hormone content’ (170). Clearly, it was only a paradox because of the dualistic mind-set on specific sexual traits in one sex and the other. On the basis of this, some clinicians argued that those human subjects where the ‘wrong’ hormone was found were latent hermaphrodites (Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body, 27) and many saw the presence of the female hormone in the male body as an agent of disease and disorder, in particular ‘psychosexual disorders’ such as homosexuality (32).

¹⁰⁸See the discussion in Marañón, La evolución, 568. Oudshoorn, ‘Endocrinologists’, 172–73, notes that Robert T. Frank who wrote The Female Sex Hormone (Springfield/Baltimore, 1929) had found the female sex hormones in ‘normal’ ‘healthy’ males but that these originated from food products. She argues that Frank was one example of a scientist who ‘tried hard to maintain a dualistic conceptualization of sex, according to which male and female were defined as exclusive categories’ (172).

¹⁰⁹See, for example, ‘Virilismo postgravídico’, El Siglo Médico, 88 (1931), 507–08.

¹¹⁰Gregorio Marañón, ‘Intersexualidad histológica e intersexualidad química’, El Siglo Médico, 4069, 5/12/31, discussed on 28 November 1931 at the National Academy of Medicine. An article of the same name but different text (and less equivocal) is reproduced in Obras completas, III, 225–28. This article was published in the annals of the Academy in 1931.

¹¹¹Marañón, ‘Intersexualidad histológica’, 588.

¹¹²Marañón, ‘Intersexualidad histológica’, 588.

¹¹³All quotations in this paragraph from Gregorio Marañón, ‘La endocrinología y la ciencia penal’, prologue to Q. Saldaña, Nueva criminología (1936), in Obras completas, I (1966), 569–75 (p. 569).

¹¹⁴Marañón, ‘La endocrinología y la ciencia penal’, 570.

¹¹⁵Marañón, ‘Los estados intersexuales en la pubertad’, 518.