What are the challenges faced by COVID-19 vaccines?

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Declaration of interests

The authors have no relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript. This includes employment, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership or options, expert testimony, grants or patents received or pending, or royalties.

Reviewer disclosures

A reviewer on this manuscript has disclosed that they have served as an investigator at Penn State Health for ACTT 1-4 (NIAID sponsored) and ACTIV-5-BET (NIH sponsored) for work not directly related to this manuscript. They also serve as a consultant for Axle Informatics for work not directly related to this manuscript. Peer reviewers on this manuscript have no other relevant financial or other relationships to disclose.

Author contributions

MA wrote the manuscript and designed the study, AAE and XJ contributed to manuscript revision. All authors approved the final version.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Shandong Provincial Key Research and Development Program (Major Scientific and Technological Innovation Project) (2019JZZY021013) Shandong Provincial Key Research and Development Program (2019GSF108080), Funds for Youth Interdisciplinary and Innovation Research Groups of Shandong University (2020QNQT003) and Shandong University postdoctoral fellowship to Mohnad Abdalla.