The Chinese People's Liberation Army and Space Warfare

Abstract

Space warfare will be an integrated part of battle planning by the Chinese People's Liberation Army in any future conflict with the United States. The People's Liberation Army has carefully absorbed and is reacting to what the American armed forces have published on space warfare and counter-space operations. Chinese strategists and legal scholars are engaged in an internal debate on how traditional ideas of sovereignty and the laws of war apply in space. One authoritative volume explored the importance of ensuring that the People's Liberation Army sets out legal justifications for military actions in advance of any conflict. Chinese scholars believe that many of the concepts surrounding the conduct of war on the “common seas” apply in space. Also, there is disagreement between the United States and China on the American position on outer space. The United States treats “peaceful uses” to mean “non-aggressive,” whereas the Chinese interpretation is that to be peaceful uses, it must be “non-military.”

A previous version of this article was published by the American Enterprise Institute.

Notes

Cai Fengzhen, Tian Anping, et al., Kongtian Yiti Zuozhan Xue (Integrated Aerospace Operations), (Beijing, China: PLA Press, 2006): 58.

See “United States Military See Looming China Threat to Satellites,” Space War, 14 August 2007, www.spacewar.com/reports/US_military_sees_looming_China_threat_to_satellites_999.html (accessed 15 August 2007).

Ibid.

See, for example, U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Publication 3–14, Joint Doctrine for Space Operations (Washington, D.C.: The Joint Staff, 9 August 2002); Secretary of the Air Force, Air Force Doctrine Document 2–2, Space Operation, (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Air Force, 27 November 2006) (superceding a 27 November 2001 publication); and Secretary of the Air Force, Air Force Doctrine Document 2–2.1, Counterspace Operation (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Air Force, 2 August 2004).

See, for instance, Yu Kunyang, Mao Zhaojun, and Li Yunzhi, “Mei, E, Hangtian Budui Zuzhi Tizhi Fenxi Ji Qishi,” (Analysis of U.S.'s and Russia's Space Organization Systems and their Inspiration), Zhuangbei ZhihuiJishu Xueyuan Xuebao (Journal of the Academy of Equipment Command and Technology) 16: 6 (2005): 70–75, www.wangfangdata.com.cn (accessed 20 August 2007); another example is Meng Lang, Weilai Zhanzheng Shemma Yang (What is Happening on the Future Battlefield), www.people.com.cn/GB/junshi/62/20010108/372946.html (accessed 20 August 2007); also, see Tian Taoyun, “Yingjie Xin Tiaozhan: Zhongguo Junshi Zhuanjia Tichu Junshi Hangtian Lilun” (Meeting a New Challenge: China's Military Experts Propose Military Aerospace Theory), Xinhuauwang, 13 December 2002, news.xinhaunet.com/newscenter/2002-12/13/content_659248.html (accessed 20 August 2007).

Dipindra Nalan Chakravarthi, “Future Aerospace Power,” New Delhi Force, 1 September 2007, in U.S. Government Open Source Center SAP20070912342003.

See Lt. Gen. Daniel O. Graham, HighFrontier: A New National Strategy (Washington, D.C.: High Frontier, Inc., 1982); and Cai and Tian Anping, Kongtian Yiti Zuozhan Xue, p. 58.

Ibid.

Cai Fenzhen, Tian Anping, et al., Kongtian Zhanchang yu Zhongguo Kongjun (The Aerospace Battlefield and China's Air Force) (Beijing, China: PLA Press, 2004).

Huang Zhicheng, “Taikong Wuqihua yu Taikong Weishe (The Weaponization of Space and Space Threats),” Guoji Jishu Jingji Yanjiu (Studies in International Technology and Economy) 9: 1 (January 2006): 27.

Ibid.

Liu Jixian, “Junshi Hangtian Lilun de Yanjiu yu Chaungxin-dui 〈Junshi Hangtian Xue〉 de Renshi yu Pingjia (study and Originality in Military Space Theory—Understanding and Commentary on 〈Military Space Theory〉),” Zhongguo Junshi Kexue 19: 6 (June 2006): 147.

Graham, High Frontier, pp. x, 1.

Ibid, p. 1.

Fu Quanyou, “Make Active Explorations, Deepen Reform, Advance Military Work in an All-Around Way,” Qiushi, 6, (6 March 1998), in FBIS-CHI-98-093, 3 April 1998; Shen Weiguang, “Xinxizhan: Mengxiang yu Xianshi” (Information Warfare: Dreams and Reality), Zhongguo Guofang Bao (China Defense News), 14 February 1997, p. 3; Wang Huyang, “Five Methods in Information Warfare,” Jiefang Junbao, 7 November 1995, p. 6, in FBIS-Ch1-96-194; Deng Raolin, Qian Shi Xu, and Zhao Jincun, eds., Gao Jishu Jubu Zhanzheng Lilun Yanjiu (Theory and Research in High Technology Warfare Under Limited Conditions) (Beijing, China: Military Friendship and Literature Publishers, 1998); Li Jijun, “Xin Shiqi Jundai Jianshe de Zhidao Gangling” (Guiding doctrine on military building in the new age,” Junshi Lilun yu Zhanzheng Shijian (Military Theory and Practice in War) (Beijing, China: Military Science Publishers, 1994).

“Informationalized” is an awkward term in English. In Chinese, it makes more sense (xinxihuade), but the PLA uses it consistently in its own translations. The best English equivalents would be information age warfare or war in the information age. This paper will use the Chinese term as well as English equivalents. See Zhao Erquan, “Lun Xixihua Zhanzheng dui Wuzhuang Chongtu Fa de Shenyuan Yinxiang (A Discussion of the Far-reaching Effects of Informationalized Warfare on the Laws of Armed Conflict),” in Liu Jixian and Liu Zheng, eds., Xin Junshi Geming yu Junshi Fazhi Jianshe (The New Revolution in Military Affairs and Building a Military Legal System (Beijing, China: PLA Press, 2005): 498–505; Pan Youmu, “Zhuoyan Kongtian Yitihua Tansuo Guojia Kongtian Anquan Zhanlue (Focus on Air-Space Integration and Exploring a National Air-Space Strategy),” in Zhongguo Junshi Kexue (China Military Science) 19: 2 (2006): 64.

Zhang Qinghai, Ji Xiaohai, “Tai kong zhan: You gouxiang dao xianshi” (Space Warfare: From Vision to Reality), Zhongguo Junshi Kexue (China Military Science) 18 (January 2005): 34–36. Also, Huang Tie Gang, Zhou Xin Chu, Chen Jun, Liu Ya Jing, “Weilai di si zhanchang—taikong” (The Fourth Battlefield in Future—Outer Space), Xiandai Fangyu Jishu (Modern Defence Technology) 32: 1 (February 2004): 8–14. A similar position can be found in Zhang Zhiwei and Feng Zhuanjiang, “Analysis of Future Integrated Air and Space Operations,” China Military Science 19: 2 (2006).

Yang Jinhui and Chang Xianqi, “Kongjian Xinxi Duikang Wenti Yanjiu (Research and Problems of Space Information Warfare),” Wu Xiandian Gongcheng (Radio Engineering) 36: 11 (2006): 9.

Zhang Jiali and Min Zengfu, “Shi lun jubu zhanzheng kong zhong hua” (On Extending the Regional War into the Air and Space), Zhongguo Junshi Kexue (China Military Science) 18 (January 2005): 41.

Pan Youmu, “Zhuoyan Kongtian Yitihua Tansuo Guojia Kongtian Anquan Zhanlue,” p. 60.

Cheng Yong and Guo Yanlong, “Fan Weixing Jiguang Wuqi Fazhan Xianzhuang yu Dongtai Fenxi (An Analysis of Present Day Trends in Anti-satellite Laser Weapons),” Dimian Fangkong Wuqi (Ground Air Defense Weapons), 312: 4 (2004): 51–54.

Li Naiguo, Xinxizhan Xinlun (A New Discussion on Information Warfare) (Beijing, China: National Defense University Press, 2004): 67–68.

Shen Shilu, Feng Shuxing, and Xu Xuefeng, “Tian Ji Dui Di Daji Dongneng Wuqi Zuozhan Nengli yu Kexing Xing Fenxi (The Analysis of the Operational Capability and Feasibility of Space-to-Ground Kinetic Weapons),” Zhuangbei Zhihui Jishu Xueyaun Xuebao (Journal of the Academy of Command and Technology), 17: 1 (February 2006): 33–37, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP20070104424009. Also, see Tseng Ming-Yi, “Taiwan Investigation of PRC's ‘Directed Energy’ Weapons Research,” Kuo-Fang Tsa-Chic (National Defense Magazine), 1 January 2007, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP200702161132008, 5 April 2007.

Zhang Zhiwei and Feng Zhuanjiang, “Analysis of Future Integrated Air and Space Operations,” p. 1.

Liu Jixian, “Junshi Hangtian Lilun de Yanjiu yu Chaungxin- dui 〈Junshi Hangtian Xue〉 de Renshi yu Pingjia,” p. 145.

Sun Laiyan, “White Paper on Space Activities,” 12 October 2006, www.china.org.cn/english/features/press/183349.htm (accessed 15 July 2007).

Liu Jixian and Liu Zheng, eds., Xin Junshi Geming yu Junshi Fazhi Jianshe (The New Revolution in Military Affairs and Building a Military Legal System (Beijing, China: PLA Press, 2005); and Zheng Shenxia and Liu Yuan, eds., Guofang he Jundui Jianshe Guanshe Luoshi Kexue Fazhan Guan Xuexi Tiyao (Study Materials for Completely Building the Military and National Defense) (Beijing, China: PLA Press, 2006): 192–194.

Law of the People's Republic of China on the Territorial Sea and the Continuous Zone, adoption date: [1992-02-25], effective date: [1992-02-25], www.zhb.gov.cn/english/law_detail.php3?id=32 (accessed 15 August 2007).

One of the most important case studies in the PLA text that the authors use to justify the concept was the U.S. action in the United Nations Security Council in justifying its actions in Iraq in 2003 on United Nations Resolutions 1373 and 1368. See Xu Ou and Tong Yunhe, “Cong Yilake Zhanzheng Kan Guoji Fa Zai Weilai Zhanzheng de Zuoyong (From the Standpoint of the Iraq War Examine the Utility of International Law in Future Warfare),” in Liu and Liu, Xin Junshi Geming yu Fazhi Jianshe, pp. 475–479.

Zhang Yuliang, et al., eds., Zhanyi Xue (On Military Campaigns [The Science of Military Campaigns]. (Beijing, China: National Defense University Press, 2006): 205–207.

Liu and Liu, Xin Junshi Geming yu Junshi Fazhi Jianshe, p. 581.

See Alexander L. George, The Chinese Communist Army in Action: The Korean War and its Aftermath (New York, New York: Columbia University Press, 1967).

See Cheng Feng and Larry M. Wortzel, “PLA Operational Principles and Limited War: The Sino-Indian War of 1962,” in Mark A. Ryan, David M. Finklestein and Michael A McDevitt, eds., Chinese Warfighting: The PLA Experience Since 1949 (Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 2003): 173–197.

Zhang Shanxin and Pan Jiangang, “Fazhizhan de Hanyi yu Yunyong (The Utility and Implications of Legal Warfare),” in Liu and Liu, Xin Junshi Geming yu Junshi Fazhi Jianshe, pp. 428–434.

Le Hucheng and Zhang Yucheng, “Faluzhan Zai Junshi Douzheng Zhunbei Zhong de Diwei he Zuoyong, (The Utility and Position of Legal Warfare in the Preparation for Military Conflict),” in Liu and Liu, Xin Jushi Geming …, pp. 355–362. See also, Liu Zhongshan, “Ziweiquan yu Zhuquan (Sovereignty and the Right of Self-Defense,” Zhanlue yu Guanli (Strategy and Management), 1 (2002): 50.

See the discussion on “sovereignty security” in Liu Jingbo, 21 Shiichu Zhongguo Guojia Anquan Zhanlue (China's National Security Strategy in the Early 21st Century) (Beijing, China: Shishi Chubanshe, 2006): 2–3. John Garver has an excellent discussion on this sensitivity and relates it to what he calls the “myth of national humiliation.” See John W. Garver, Foreign Relations of the People's Republic of China (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1993): 4–8.

Cai and Tian, Kongtian Zhanchang yu Zhongguo Kongjun, p. 2. The two editors make essentially the same point in their 2006 text, Cai and Tian, Kongtian Yiti Zuozhan, p. 58.

Aria Pearson, “China's New Submarine Spotted on Google Earth,” NewScientistTech, 6 July 2007, technology.newscientist.com/article/dn12204 (accessed 15 September 2007).

Mao Yuan, “Gegediqiu Yinfa de Sikao (Thoughts Prompted by Google Earth),” Huojianbing Bao (Rocket Troops Daily), 1 June 2007, p. 2, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP20070723478006. A number of “Blogs” by soldiers on PLA web sites complained that China's secrets were open to observation from space. See Wang Guobo and Yang Chen, “Google Earth Prompts Heated Discussion Among Grassroots level Military Personnel,” Kongjun Bao (Air Force Daily), 19 April 2007, p. 2, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP20070706478005.

Mao Yuan, “Gege Diqiu Yinfa de Sikao.”

Li Yong, Wang Xiao, Yi Ming, and Wang Long, “Threats to Spaceborne Optpelectronic Imaging and Telemetry Systems and Countermeasures Technology,” in Hongwai yu Jiguang Gongcheng (Infrared and Laser Engineering), 34: 6 (December 2005): 631–635, 640, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP20070104424011. Also, see Huang Shiqi and Liu Daizhi, “Fan Chengxiang Weixing Zhencha Jishu yu Fangfa Celue Yanjiu, Study Anti-Imaging Spy Satellite Technology and Tactical Methods Research),” Second Artillery Engineering College, pp. 104–107, http://www.cnki.net.cn (accessed 15 September 2007).

“China: PLA Training Emphasizes Imagery Recon Evasion,” Analysis, 31 July 2007, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPF20070731534001.

Ren Xiaofeng, “Zhuanyu Jingjiqu Junshi Liyong de Falu Wenti: Zhongguo de Guanjiao (Legal Issues Regarding Military and Intelligence Gathering Activities in the EEZ and Adjacent Airspace: A Chinese Perspective),” vip.chinalawinfo.com/newlaw2002/slc/slc.asp?db=art&gid=33557856 (accessed 10 October 2007).

Zhang Hualiang, Song Huaren, “Luelun Xinxihua Zhanzheng Zhu Zhanchang Xiang Taikong Zhuanyi de Biranxing (Discussion on the Inevitability of the Main Battlefield in Information War Transferring to Outer Space,” in Zuangbei Zhiui Jishu Xueyaun Xuebao (Journal of the Academy of Equipment Command and Technology) 15: 5 (October 2004): 14, 17. Also, see Gao Qingjun, “Characteristics and Mimitations of Space Reconnaissance in High-Tech Local War,” Zhuangbei Shihui Jishu Xueyuan (Journal of the Academy of Command and Technology), 1 February 2005, pp. 52–56, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP20070105424011.

Ren, Zhuanyu Jingjiqu Junshi Liyong de Falu Wenti: Zhongguo de Guanjiao, vip.chinalawinfo.com (accessed 5 October 2007).

Cheng Yong and Guo Yanlong, “Fan Weixing Jiguang Wuqi Fazhan Xianzhuang yu Dongtai Fenxi (An Analysis of Present Day Trends in Anti-satellite Laser Weapons),” Dimian Fangkong Wuqi (Ground Air Defense Weapons) 312: 4 (2004): 51–54, http://www.cnki.net (accessed 5 November 2007).

U.S. National Space Policy, The White House, 31 August 2006.

“National Sovereignty of Outer Space,” Harvard Law Review 74 (1960–1961): 1154–1175.

Ibid., p. 1164.

Ibid., p. 1167, also, see notes 98 and 99.

Ibid., pp. 1168–1169.

See Michel Bourbonniere, “National Security Law in Outer Space: The Interface of Exploration and Security,” Journal of Air Law and Commerce 70: 1 (Winter 2005): 3–62, www.smu.edu/lra/Journals/JALC(accessed 20 October 2007).

Pan Youmie, “Zhuoyan Kongtian Yitihua Tansuo Guojia Kongtian Anquan Zhanlue (Focus on Air-Space Integration and Exploring a National Air-Space Strategy),” in Zhongguo Junshi Kexue (China Military Science) 19: 2 (2006): 60–66.

Cai and Tian Anping, Kongtian Yiti Zuozhan Xue, pp. 90–91.

Ibid., pp. 91–92.

Ibid., p. 57 and 216–217.

Robert A. Ramey, “Armed Conflict on the Final Frontier: The Law of War in Space,” The Air Force Law Review 49: 1 (2000): 44, http://www.globenet.free-online.co.uk/slaw/lawofwar.htm (accessed 20 October 2007).

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty Between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R., cited in Ramey, “The Law of War in Space,” p. 52 and note 454.

Li Daguang, “Taikong Zuozhan de Zhidao Sixiang (Thoughts on Aerospace Operations Command and Control),” Guoji Taikong (International Aerospace) 3 (2004): 27–30, www.cnki.net (accessed 5 November 2007); also, see Liu Jixian, “Junshi Hangtian Lilun de Yanjiu yu Chaungxin- dui 〈Junshi Hangtian Xue〉 de Renshi yu Pingjia (study and Originality in Military Space Theory-Understanding and Commentary on 〈Military Space Theory〉),” Zhongguo Junshi Kexue 19: 6 (June 2006): 145–147. Cai and Tian, Kongtian Yiti Zuozhan Xue, p. 57–58.

Cai and Tian, Kongtian Yiti Zuozhan Xue, p. 57

Zheng Shenxia and Liu Yuan, eds., Guofang he Jundui Jianshe Guanshe Luoshi Kexue Fazhan Guan Xuexi Tiyao (Study Materials for Completely Building the Military and National Defense) (Beijing, China: PLA Press, 2006): 25.

Ibid., pp. 25–26.

Cai and Tian, Kongtian Yiti Zuozhan Xue, p. 90–91.

Ibid., p. 90.

Cai and Tian, Kongtian Zhanchang yu Zhongguo Kongjun, p. 76.

Cai and Tian, Kongtian Yiti Zuozhan Xue, p. 90–91.

hang Hualiang, Song Huaren, “Luelun Xinxihua Zhanzheng Zhu Zhanchang Xiang Taikong Zhuanyi de Biranxing (Discussion on the Inevitability of the Main Battlefield in Information War Transferring to Outer Space,” in Zuangbei Zhiui Jishu Xueyaun Xuebao (Journal of the Academy of Equipment Command and Technology) 15: 5 (October 2004): 14–17.

Ren, “Zhuanyu Jingjiqu Junshi Liyong de Falu Wenti,” pp. 5–7.

See for example M.J. Peterson, “The Use of Analogies in Developing Outer Space Law,” in International Organization, 541: 2 (Spring 1997): 254–274; and Nina Tannenwald, “Law Versus Power on the High Frontier: The Case for a Rule-Based Regime for Outer Space,” Yale Journal of International Law 29: 363 (Summer 2004); and Haile Jayson, “The New Age of Conquest and Colonialism: How Admiralty Will be used on the Final Frontire,” Tulane Maritime Law Journal, 29: 353 (Summer 2005).

He Qizhi, “Legal Progress of Space in China,” Air and Space Law, XVIII: 6 (1993): 289.

See the earlier note on Ren Xiaofeng, “Zhuanyu Jingjiqu Junshi Liyong de Falu Wenti: Zhongguo de Guanjiao (Legal Issues Regarding Military and Intelligence Gathering Activities in the EEZ and Adjacent Airspace: A Chinese Perspective),” vip.chinalawinfo.com/newlaw2002/slc/slc.asp?db=art&gid=33557856 (accessed 25 October 2007).

Chen Qiang, “Chinese Practice in Public International Law,” Chinese Journal of International Law, 3: 591 (2003): 17–28.

Wang Pufeng, “Xinxizhan Yanjiu zhong Ruogan Wenti de Wo Jian (My views on Basic Questions in Research on Informationalized Warfare)” in Shen Weiguang, et al., eds., Zhongguo Xinxi Zhan (China's Information Warfare) (Beijing, China: Xingu Press, 2005): 42–43.

Li Naiguo, Xinxizhan Xinlun (A New Discussion on Information Warfare) (Beijing, China: National Defense University Press, 2004): 35–45.

There is an excellent discussion of this disagreement and the U.S., Soviet, and Chinese positions in Bourbonniere, “National Security Law in Outer Space: The Interface of Exploration and Security,” notes. 54 and 55. Also, a good overview can be found in Ramey, “Armed Conflict on the Final Frontier: The Law of War in Space,” pp. 41–42. The Chinese position is outlined in Chen Qiang, “Chinese Practice in Public International Law,” Chinese Journal of International Law 3: 591 (2003): 5–8.

For data on Chinese satellites, see Jane's Space Directory 2006–2007 (Surrey, UK: Janes Inc., 2006), http://www.ucsusa/global_security/space_weapons/satellite_database.html (accessed 10 November 2007).

Cheng Yong and Guo Yanlong, “Fan Weixing Jiguang Wuqi Fazhan Xianzhuang yu Dongtai Fenxi (An Analysis of Present Day Trends in Anti-satellite Laser Weapons),” Dimian Fangkong Wuqi (Ground Air Defense Weapons) 312: 4 (2004): 51–54, http://www.cnki.net (accessed 10 November 2007).

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Mao Zedong, Mao Tse-tung on Guerilla Warfare, in Samuel B. Grifith, Translation (New York, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961): 52–53; also, see Peng and Yao, The Science of Military Strategy, pp. 280–282.

Ibid., pp. 88–90, 110–111, 113–117. Also, see Zhang Xingye, Ed. Zhanyi Sixiang Fazhan Shi (The History of thinking on Campaign Development) (Beijing, China: Guofang Daxue Chubanshe, 1997): 336–341; Yu Yongzhe, Gao Jishu Zhanzheng yu Houqin Baozhang (High Technology Warfare and Ensuring Logistics) (Beijing, China: Junshi Kexue Chubanshe, 1995): 70–74; Li Bingyan, Da Moulue yu Xin Junshi Biange (Grand Strategy and the Revolution in Military Affairs) (Beijing, China: Jiefangjun Chubanshe, 2004): 287–297.

See the article in this issue of Astropolitics entitled, “Viewpoint: China and Space War,” as to how a scenario of space warfare could possibly emerge between China and the U.S. in a conflict regarding Taiwan.

Yang Hua, Chen Changming, Ling Yongshun, and Ma Donghui, “Analysis of Jamming of Spaceborn Missile Early Warning System,” in Hangitan Dianzi Duikang (Aerospace Electronic Warfare) 4 (2001): 5–7, 37, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP20070105424012; Xiao Yuxiang, Zhou Wenjiong, and Wu Shiqi, “Distributed Jamming System and its Key Technologies Based on Pico-Satellite,” Hangtian Dianzi Duikang (Aerospace Electronic Countermeasures) 22: 5 (1 October 2006) 25–27, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP200671227424004; Zhou Wenzhong, Xiao Yuxiang, and Wu Shiqi, “Delay Analysis and Simulation of Micro-Satellite Repeater Deception Jamming,” Dianzi Xinxi Duikang Jishu (Electronic Information Countermeasures Technology) 21: 6 (November 2006): 27–30, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP20070103424011; and Lu Jiuming and Zhu Kai, “Junshi Tongxin Weixing Ji Qi Xinglian Lu Xingneng Yanjiu (Research on Military Communications Satellites and the Performance of Downlinks),” Xiandai Fangwei Jishu (Modern Defence Technology) 34: 3 (June 2006): 48–51.

Ibid., p. 5.

Ibid., p. 6.

Ibid., p. 7.

Ibid., pp. 7, 37.

Ibid., p. 37.

Zhou Yanping, Zhao Xue, and Long Weijun, “Study of Possible Countermeasures Against SAR Satellite,” Zhuangbei Zhihui Jishu Xueyuan Xuebao (Journal of the Academy of Equipment Command and Technology) 14: 5 (October 2003): 33–37, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP20070105424013; Bai Zhonggan, Zhou Ying, Wang Guoyu, and Wang Liandong, “Study on Sequentially Booted Information on Platform Location for SAR Deception Jamming,” Xiandai Leida (Modern Radar) 29: 1 (January 2007): 77–79; Yang Hua, Chen Changming, Ling Yongshun, and Ma Donghui, “Analysis of Jamming of Spaceborn Missile Early Warning System,” in Hangitan Dianzi Duikang (Aerospace Electronic Warfare) 4 (2001): 5–7, 37, in U.S. Government Open Source Center CPP20070105424012.

Huang, “Taikong Wuqihua yu Taikong Weishe,” Guoji Jishu Jingji Yanjiu, p. 24.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 26.

Ibid., pp. 26–27.

Ibid.

Warren Ferster and Colin Clark, “NRO Confirms Chinese Laser Test Illuminated U.S. Spacecraft,” Defense News, 2 October 2006.

The Central Military Commission directs and assumes unified command of the Chinese armed forces. The PLA is organized in accordance with a system whereby the General Staff Department, the General Political Department, the General Logistics Department, and the General Armament Department are placed under the leadership of the Central Military Commission, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/cmc.htm (accessed 1 April 2008).

http://www.TheStandard.com.hk (accessed 16 August 2007).

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During my experience as a military attaché in China, on the Department of the Army Staff, and on the staff of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, Chinese officials often deflected requests to engage in various forms of strategic dialogue with the objective of confidence building by stating that such measures reflected a “cold war mentality.” They argued that such talks were relevant only for the U.S. and the Soviet Union. For an example of this argument, see Wang Xingfeng, “Zhong-Mei Taikong Chongtu Lun” Zhiyi—Jian Lun Zhong Mei Taikong Hezuo (Calling into Question the Theory of a Sino–U.S. Conflict Over Space—Two Theories of Sino-U.S. Space Cooperation),” in Dongnan Ya Yanjiu (Southeast Asian Studies) 2 (2004): 60–63.