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ABSTRACT
This paper is intended to contribute to the widening literature on the complicated links between education, the state and violence. It also builds on previous analyses of Pakistan Studies textbooks, and utilises notions of citizenship to illuminate inequalities and the theoretical lens of cultural violence. To do this, I present an in-depth analysis of the Pakistan Studies Textbook for Secondary Classes used in government schools in Islamabad Capital Territory. This textbook analysis was conducted as part of a case study of one girls’ secondary school in 2014 which linked citizenship education to Galtung's 1990 violence triangle. I also demonstrate through classroom observations of the case study school the power that the textbook holds as the voice of authority in the classrooms in which it is used. The analysis is situated it in the broader historical context of the process of nation building. I illustrate the specific ways the textbook contributes to the narrative of exclusion of some Pakistanis from equal citizenship which has the potential to normalise violence against excluded groups.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Ann Emerson is a Lecturer of Education Studies in the School of Education and Sociology at the University of Portsmouth, UK. She is a co-founder of the research cluster Global Education, Childhoods, and Outreach (GECO) and teaches international education at the undergraduate and post-graduate level. Prior to her academic work, she spent over 15 years working in international development education including 10 years in Pakistan.
Notes
1 K.D. Bush and D. Saltarelli, eds., The Two Faces of Education in Ethnic Conflict: Towards a Peacebuilding Education for Children (Florence: United Nations Children's Fund Innocenti Project, 2000).
2 Johan Galtung, ‘Violence, Peace, and Peace Research’, Journal of Peace Research 6, no. 3 (1969): 167–91.
3 Johan Galtung, ‘Cultural Violence’, Journal of Peace Research 27, no. 3 (1990): 291–305.
4 N. Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage Publications Ltd, 1997).
5 Sigal R. Ben-Porath, Citizenship under Fire: Democratic Education in Times of Conflict (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009).
6 W. Shulz, J. Ainley, J. Fraillon, D. Kerr, and B. Losito, Initial Findings from the IEA International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (Amsterdam: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, 2010).
7 Ann Emerson, Educating Pakistan's Daughters: The Intersection of Schooling, Unequal Citizenship and Violence (PhD Thesis, University of Sussex, 2017).
8 A. Jamal, ‘Gender, Citizenship, and the Nation-State in Pakistan: Willful Daughters or Free Citizens’, Signs 31, no. 2 (2006): 283–304.
9 L. Davies, Education and Conflict: Complexity and Chaos (London: Routledge, 2004).
10 R. Saigol, ‘Enemies Within and Enemies Without: The Besieged Self in Pakistani textbooks’, Futures 37 (2005): 1005–35.
11 Saigol, ‘Enemies Within and Enemies Without’, 1007.
12 Lynn Davies, Education and Conflict: Complexity and Chaos (London: Routledge, 2004).
13 N. Durrani and A. Halai, ‘Dynamics of Gender Justice, Conflict and Social Cohesion: Analysing Educational Reforms in Pakistan’, International Journal of Educational Development 61 (2018): 27–39.
14 Saigol, ‘Enemies Within and Enemies Without’, 1009.
15 Ibid., 1009.
16 Ann Emerson, Educating Pakistan's Daughters.
17 N. Fairclough, Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research (New York: Routledge, 2003).
18 R. Rogers, E. Malancharuvil-Berkes, M. Mosley, D. Diane Hui, and J. O'Garro, ‘Critical Discourse Analysis in Education: A Review of the Literature’, Review of Educational Research 75, no. 3 (2005): 365–416.
19 Teun A. van Dijk, ‘Critical Discourse Analysis’, in The Handbook of Discourse Analysis, ed. D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen and H. Hamilton (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2008), 352–71.
20 Daniel H. Levine and L.S. Bishai, Civic Education and Peacebuilding: Examples from Iraq and Sudan (Washington, DC: United States Institutes for Peace, 2010).
21 Anatol Lieven, Pakistan: A Hard Country (London: Penguin Group, 2011).
22 A.A. Nayyar and A. Salim, The Subtle Subversion: The State of Curricula and Texts in Pakistan (Lahore: UNESCO, 2005).
23 A. Jalal, ‘The Convenience of Subservience: Women and the State of Pakistan’, In Women, Islam and the State, ed. Deniz Kandiyoti (New York: Macmillan Press, 1991).
24 A. Hussian, A. Salim, and A. Naveed, Connecting the Dots: Education and Religious Discrimination in Pakistan: A Study of Public Schools and Madrassas (Washington: United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, 2011), 13.
25 B. Dean, Citizenship Education in Pakistani Schools: Problems and possibilities (Lahore: Aga Khan University, 2005).
26 See Kumar 2001, Nayyar & Salim 2005, Naseem 2010, Rahman 2004.
27 N. Durrani, A. Halai, L. Kadiwal, S. Rajput, M. Novelli, and Y. Sayed, Education and Social Cohesion in Pakistan (UNICEF, 2017).
28 Ibid.
29 International Crisis Group, Education Reform in Pakistan (Brussels: International Crisis Group, 2014), 14.
30 T. Rahman, Denizens of Alien Worlds: A Study of Education, Inequality and Polarization in Pakistan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
31 A.Q. Khan, Pakistan Studies for Secondary Classes (2010), 1.
32 Ibid., 3–4.
33 Ibid., 4.
34 A.M. Weiss, Interpreting Islam, Modernity, and Women's Rights in Pakistan (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 15.
35 Khan, Pakistan Studies for Secondary Classes, 4.
36 Ibid., 1.
37 Ibid., 2.
38 Ben-Porath, Citizenship under Fire.
39 Khan, Pakistan Studies for Secondary Classes, 18.
40 Weiss, Interpreting Islam, Modernity, and Women's Rights in Pakistan.
41 Khan, Pakistan Studies for Secondary Classes, 3.
42 Ibid., 8.
43 Ibid., 38.
44 Ibid., 57.
45 L. Sharlach, ‘Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh, the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda’, New Political Science 22, no. 1 (2000): 89–102.
46 S. Bose, ‘Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971’, Economic and Political Weekly 40, no. 41 (2005): 4463–71.
47 Khan, Pakistan Studies for Secondary Classes, 57.
48 Ibid., 62.
49 Ibid., 64.
50 K. Kumar, Prejudice and Pride: School Histories of the Freedom Struggle in India and Pakistan (New Delhi: Viking by Penguin Books, 2001), 59.
51 M.W. Apple, ‘The Text and Cultural Politics’, Educational Researcher 21, no. 7 (1992): 4–19. P.5.
52 A.H. Nayyar, A Missed Opportunity: Continuing Flaws in the New Curriculum and Textbooks after Reforms (Islamabad: The Jinnah Institute, 2013), 5.
53 Ibid., 3.
54 Ibid., 50.
55 Ibid., 51.
56 Ibid., 66.
57 Ibid., 192.
58 Anthony J. Parel, Gandhi's Philosophy and the Quest for Harmony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
59 A.M. Khan, ‘Persecution of the Ahmadiyya Community in Pakistan: An Analysis under International Law and International Relations’, Harvard Human Rights Journal 16 (2003): 217–44; 222.
60 Nayyar, A Missed Opportunity.
61 Ibid.
62 Government of Pakistan, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (1977).
63 M.A. Naseem, Education and Gendered Citizenship in Pakistan (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
64 M. Jinnah, Address by Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah at Lahore Session of Muslim League (Lahore: Directorate of Films and Publishing; Government of Pakistan, 1940).
65 Ibid.
66 Khan, Pakistan Studies for Secondary Classes, 37.
67 Ibid., 145.
68 K. Mumtaz and F. Shaheed, Women of Pakistan: Two Steps Forward, One Step Back (London: Zed Books Ltd, 1987), 23.
69 Ann Emerson, Educating Pakistan's Daughters.
70 Kumar, Prejudice and Pride.
71 Saigol, ‘Enemies Within and Enemies Without’, 1019.
72 Kumar, Prejudice and Pride.
73 Khan, Pakistan Studies for Secondary Classes, 71.
74 Ibid., 64.
75 M. vom Hau, ‘Unpacking the School: Textbooks, Teachers, and the Construction of Nationhood in Mexico, Argentina, and Peru’, Latin American Research Review 44 (2009): 127–54.
76 Levine and Bishai, Civic Education and Peacebuilding.
77 N. Durrani and M. Dunne, ‘Curriulum and National Identity: Exploring the Links Between Religion and Nation in Pakistan’, Journal of Curriculum Studies 42, no. 2 (2010): 215–40.
78 N. Voigtländer and H.-J. Voth, ‘Nazi Indoctrination and Anti-Semetic Beliefs in Germany’, PNAS 112, no. 26 (2016): 7931–6.
79 Durrani and Dunne, ‘Curriulum and National Identity’, 215–40.