Sexual and gender-based violence: the case for transformative justice in Cambodia

ABSTRACT

This article aims to advance the idea of transformative justice by building on and expanding the notion of ‘justice’ beyond that traditionally offered by transitional justice discourse and practice. The need for a paradigm shift is warranted by the continued high levels of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), directed predominantly towards women, experienced in post-conflict contexts. Using the example of Cambodia, we argue that the scale of SGBV in a post-conflict country can be an indicator of the extent of ‘transformative’ change taking place, and, thus, of the success of transitional justice processes and democracy consolidation, particularly regarding gender equality. Gender equality is essential for democratisation, as democracy should be both a political and a social project. Thus, democracy- and peace-building efforts require challenging entrenched power hierarchies and deep-rooted gender inequality, of which SGBV is symptomatic.

KEYWORDS:

• Transformative justice
• transitional justice
• sexual and gender-based violence
• gender equality
• Cambodia
• democratisation

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Ms Ratana Ly for her invaluable research assistance as well as Prof. Elena Marchetti for her insightful comments on the earlier draft of this paper, but all errors and omissions remain our own.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors

Natalia Szablewska serves on the faculty of Southern Cross University (Australia), as well as an Adjunct Professor at the Royal University of Law & Economics (Cambodia). Her research is interdisciplinary in nature and she employs gender and human rights approaches to examine transitional justice processes and mechanisms in post-conflict societies. Natalia has published widely for academic and non-academic audiences, including Current Issues in Transitional Justice (Springer, 2015), and her academic work has appeared in leading law and social sciences journals.

Olga Jurasz is a Senior Lecturer in the Law School at the Open University, UK. She works in the fields of international law, human rights, gender-based violence as well as gender and post-conflict reconstruction.

Notes

1 The First Independent Women’s Forum of the Soviet Union, ‘Itogovyi otchet o rabote Pervogo Nezavisimogo Zhenskogo Foruma’ (Dubna, Russia, March 29–31, 1991).

2 Cynthia Cockburn, ‘Democracy Without Women is No Democracy: Soviet Women Hold Their First Autonomous National Conference’, Feminist Review 39, no. 1 (1991): 141–8.

3 John Dewy, The Public and Its Problems (New York: Holt, 1927). See also Robert B. Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1991).

4 See, for example, Tricia D. Olsen, Leigh A. Payne and Andrew G. Reiter, ‘The Justice Balance: When Transitional Justice Improves Human Rights and Democracy’, Human Rights Quarterly 32 (2010): 980–1007.

5 J. Hoover, Reconstructing Human Rights: A Pragmatist and Pluralist Inquiry into Global Ethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

6 Natalia Szablewska and Krzysztof Kubacki, ‘A Human Rights-based Approach to the Social Good in Social Marketing’, Journal of Business Ethics (2017), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3520-8.

7 World Economic Forum, ‘Cambodia’, http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2017/dataexplorer/#economy=KHM (accessed February 1, 2017).

8 Shirin M. Rai, International Perspectives on Gender and Democratisation (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).

9 United Nations, ‘Report of the Asian and Pacific Conference on Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: Beijing+20 Review, Bangkok, Thailand, 17–20 November 2014’, http://www.unescapsdd.org/files/documents/Beijing%2B20%20Conference%20Report%20(Web%20version).pdf (accessed December 5, 2017).

10 See, for example, World Health Organization (WHO), ‘Promoting Gender Equality to Prevent Violence Against Women. Series of Briefings on Violence Prevention: The Evidence’, http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/gender.pdf (accessed December 5, 2017).

11 UN Human Rights Council, Analytical Study Focusing on Gender-based and Sexual Violence in Relation to Transitional Justice (Geneva: Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2014).

12 UN Human Rights Council, Analytical Study; CEDAW Committee, General Recommendation No. 30 on Women in Conflict Prevention, Conflict and Post-conflict Situations (Geneva: CEDAW Committee, 2013).

13 Valerie M. Hudson et al., Sex and World Peace (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).

14 See also Wendy Lambourne and Vivianna Rodriguez Carreon, ‘Engendering Transitional Justice: A Transformative Approach to Building Peace and Attaining Human Rights for Women’, Human Rights Review 17 (2016): 71–93.

15 CEDAW Committee, General Recommendation No. 19 on Violence Against Women (Geneva: CEDAW Committee, 1992); Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras, (Ser. C) no. 4 (1988), Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACrtHR), July 29, 1988, para.172.

16 CEDAW Committee, General Recommendation No. 30, para. 29.

17 Ibid., para. 35.

18 Rashida Manjoo and Colin McRaith, ‘Gender-based Violence and Justice in Conflict and Post-conflict Areas’, Cornell International Law Journal 44 (2011): 11–31.

19 Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Judgment, ICTR-96-4-T (September 2, 1998); Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Judgment, IT-95-17/1T (December 10, 1998); Prosecutor v. Sesay, Kallon, Gbao (RUF), Judgment, SCSL-04-15-T (March 2, 2009); Situation in the Central African Republic: Prosecutor v. Jean Pierre Bemba, Judgment, ICC-01/05-01/08-3343 (March 21, 2016).

20 ICTR, ‘Best Practices Manual for the Investigation and Prosecution of Sexual Violence Crimes in Post-conflict Regions: Lessons Learned from the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda’, http://w.unictr.org/sites/unictr.org/files/legal-library/140130_prosecution_of_sexual_violence.pdf (accessed December 5, 2017).

21 Valerie Oosterveld and Patricia Viseur Sellers, ‘Issues of Sexual and Gender-based Violence at the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia’, in The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia: Assessing Their Contribution to International Criminal Law (The Hague: TMC Asser Press, 2016), 321–51.

22 CEDAW Committee, Concluding Observations on the Combined Fourth and Fifth Periodic Reports of Cambodia (Geneva: CEDAW Committee, 2013).

23 UNSCR 1820 (June 19, 2008) UN Doc. S/RES/1820; UNSCR 1983 (June 7, 2011) UN Doc. S/RES/1983; UNSCR 1888 (September 30, 2009) UN Doc. S/RES/1888; UNSCR 1889 (October 5, 2009) UN Doc. S/RES/1889; UNSCR 1960 (December 16, 2010) UN Doc. S/RES/1960; UNSCR 2106 (June 24, 2013) UN Doc. S/RES/2106; UNSCR 2122 (October 18, 2013) UN Doc. S/RES/2122; UNSCR 2242 (October 13, 2015) UN Doc. S/RES/2242.

24 See also Dianne Otto, ‘Power and Danger: Feminist Engagement with International Law through the UN Security Council’, Australian Feminist Law Journal 32, no. 1 (2010): 97–121.

25 UN Women, ‘Women’s Participation in Peace Negotiations: Connections Between Presence and Influence’, http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/03AWomenPeaceNeg.pdf (accessed December 5, 2017). A study by UN Women shows that out of 31 peace negotiations conducted between 1992 and 2011, women accounted for only 4% of signatories, 2.4% of chief mediators, 3.7% of witnesses and 9% of negotiators.

26 Rashida Manjoo, ‘Introduction: Reflections on the Concept and Implementation of Transformative Reparations’, The International Journal of Human Rights 21, no. 9 (2017): 1193–1203.

27 Kate Ogg and Natalia Szablewska, ‘A Feminist Legal Analysis of the Interface Between Refugee Law and the Mandates of Truth and Reconciliation Commissions’, in Current Issues in Transitional Justice: Towards a More Holistic Approach (New York: Springer, 2015), 209–34.

28 See, for example, Martha Minow, Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History After Genocide and Mass Violence (Boston: Beacon Press, 1998).

29 Patricia M. Wald, ‘The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Comes of Age: Some Observations on Day-To-Day Dilemmas of an International Court’, Washington University Journal of Law & Policy 5 (2001): 87–118.

30 Further critiqued by Anne-Marie McGauran, ‘Gender Mainstreaming and the Public Policy Implementation Process: Round Pegs in Square Holes’, Policy and Politics 37, no. 2 (2009): 215–33; Maxine David and Roberta Guerrina, ‘Gender and European External Relations: Dominant Discourses and Unintended Consequences of Gender Mainstreaming’, Women Studies International Forum 39 (2013): 53–62; Petra Meier and Karen Celis, ‘Sowing the Seeds of Its Own Failure: Implementing the Concept of Gender Mainstreaming’, Social Politics 18, no. 4 (2011): 469–89; Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, Dina Francesca Haynes and Naomi Cahn, On the Frontlines: Gender, War, and the Post-conflict Process (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).

31 Hilary Charlesworth and Christine Chinkin, The Boundaries of International Law: A Feminist Analysis (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000).

32 Susan Harris Rimmer, ‘Sexing the Subject of Transitional Justice’, Australian Feminist Law Journal 32 (2010): 123–47.

33 Ramona Vijeyarasa, ‘Review Essay: Women at the Margins of International Law: Reconceptualizing Dominant Discourses on Gender and Transitional Justice’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 7 (2013): 358–69, 359.

34 Kirsten Campbell, ‘The Gender of Transitional Justice: Law, Sexual Violence and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 1, no. 3 (2007): 411–32; Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, ‘Advancing Feminist Positioning in the Field of Transitional Justice’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 6, no. 2 (2012): 205–28; Catherine O’Rourke, Gender Politics in Transitional Justice (London: Routledge, 2013).

35 Julie Mertus, ‘Shouting from the Bottom of the Well: The Impact of International Trials for Wartime Rape on Women’s Agency’, International Feminist Journal of Politics 6, no. 1 (2004): 110–28.

36 Susanne Buckley-Zistel and Ruth Stanley, ‘Introduction’, in Gender in Transitional Justice (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 1–33, 2.

37 See also Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, ‘Advancing Feminist Positioning’. Such an approach further sidelines a range of (structural) harms and violations experienced by women in conflict and transitional periods, and, as Ní Aoláin posits, ‘a persistent blind spot for transitional justice has been the entrenched habit of zoning in on specific violations to the individuals’ (Ibid., 27), which, even though practically favourable, has far-reaching implications for achieving ‘justice’ for all.

38 Doris Buss, ‘Rethinking Rape as a Weapon of War’, Feminist Legal Studies 17, no. 2 (2009): 145–63.

39 Natalia Szablewska and Sascha Bachmann, ‘Current Issues and Future Challenges in Transitional Justice’, in Current Issues in Transitional Justice: Towards a More Holistic Approach (New York: Springer, 2015), 339–61, 342.

40 Lucy Hovil and Moses Chrispus Okello, ‘Editorial Note, Special Issue: Civil Society, Social Movements and Transitional Justice’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 5, no. 3 (2011): 333–44.

41 Paul Grady and Simon Robins, ‘From Transitional to Transformative Justice: A New Agenda for Practice’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 8, no. 3 (2014): 339–361, 340.

42 Ibid.

43 Erin Daly, ‘Transformative Justice: Charting a Path to Reconciliation’, International Legal Perspectives 12, no. 1/2 (2002): 73–183.

44 Christine Bell, ‘Transitional Justice, Interdisciplinarity and the State of the “Field” or “Non-Field”’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 3, no. 1 (2009): 5–27.

45 Christine Chinkin and Hilary Charlesworth, ‘Building Women into Peace: The International Legal Framework’, Third World Quarterly 27 (2006): 937–57.

46 Christine Bell, Colm Campbell and Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, ‘Justice Discourses in Transition’, Social and Legal Studies 13, no. 3 (2004): 305–28.

47 Lambourne and Rodriguez Carreon, ‘Engendering Transitional Justice’.

48 Ibid., 73.

49 See, for example, Rama Mani, ‘Conflict Resolution, Justice and the Law: Rebuilding the Rule of Law in the Aftermath of Complex Political Emergencies’, International Peacekeeping 5, no. 3 (1998): 1–25; Wendy Lambourne, ‘Transitional Justice and Peacebuilding After Mass Violence’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 3, no. 1 (2009): 28–48.

50 John Paul Lederach, ‘The Challenge of the 21st Century: The Justpeace’, in People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories from Around the World (Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999), 35.

51 On a similar note, see Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, ‘Expanding the Boundaries of Transitional Justice’, Ethics & International Affairs 22, no. 2 (2008): 213–22.

52 Pablo De Greiff and Roger Duthie, eds., Transitional Justice and Development: Making Connections (New York: International Center for Transitional Justice, 2009).

53 Roger Duthie, ‘Toward a Development-sensitive Approach to Transitional Justice’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 2, no. 3 (2008): 292–309; Rama Mani, ‘Dilemmas of Expanding Transitional Justice, or Forging the Nexus Between Transitional Justice and Development’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 2, no. 3 (2008): 253–65.

54 Jelke Boesten and Polly Wilding, ‘Transformative Gender Justice: Setting an Agenda’, Women’s Studies International Forum 51, no. 1 (2015): 75–80, 4.

55 See, for example, Wenona Giles and Jennifer Hyndman, ‘Introduction: Gender and Conflict in a Global Context’, in Sites of Violence: Gender and Conflict Zones (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press 2004), 3–23.

56 Rosemary Nagy, ‘Transitional Justice as Global Project: Critical Reflections’, Third World Quarterly 29, no. 2 (2008): 275–89, 276.

57 ECCC, ‘Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea’ (DK government legal documents), https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/document/court/dk-government-legal-documents-entitled-constitution-democratic-kampuchea (accessed December 5, 2017). Democratic Kampuchea signified ‘a State of the people, workers, peasants, and all other Kampuchean labourers’.

58 Bruce Sharp, ‘Counting Hell: The Death Toll of the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia’, http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm (accessed December 5, 2017).

59 Michael Vickery, Cambodia 1975–1982 (Boston: South End Press, 1984).

60 Kasumi Nakagawa, Gender-based Violence During the Khmer Rouge Regime: Stories of Survivors from the Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979) (Phnom Penh: Cambodian Defenders Project, 2008); Trudy Jacobson, Lost Goddesses: The Denial of Female Power in Cambodian History (Copenhagen: NIAS Press, 2008); Peg LeVine, Love and Dread in Cambodia: Weddings, Births and Ritual Harm Under the Khmer Rouge (Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2010).

61 Documentation Centre of Cambodia, Sexual Abuse Cases Under the Democratic Kampuchea (the Khmer Rouge) Regime, trans. Tieng Sopheak Vichea (Phnom Penh: DC-Cam, 1999).

62 Nakagawa, Gender-based Violence During the Khmer Rouge Regime.

63 Rochelle Braaf, Sexual Violence Against Ethnic Minorities During the Khmer Rouge Regime (Phnom Penh: Cambodian Defenders Project, 2014).

64 Katrina Natale, ‘I Could Feel My Soul Flying Away from My Body’: A Study on Gender-based Violence During Democratic Kampuchea in Battambang and Svay Rieng Provinces (Phnom Penh: Cambodian Defenders Project, 2011).

65 See, for example, Duong Savorn, The Mystery of Sexual Violence Under the Khmer Rouge Regime (Phnom Penh: Cambodian Defenders Project, 2011).

66 LeVine, Love and Dread in Cambodia.

67 United Nations Treaty Collection, ‘Agreement Between the United Nations and the Royal Government of Cambodia Concerning the Prosecution Under Cambodian Law of Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea, Phnom Penh, 6 June 2003’, https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%202329/Part/volume-2329-I-41723.pdf (accessed December 5, 2017). The ECCC has a complex hybrid structure, combining both national and international characters. It was formed according to the provisions of the ECCC Law 2001, implementing the agreement between the UN and the government of Cambodia of October 27, 2004. On the evaluation of the success or otherwise of the ECCC see, for example, David Scheffer, ‘The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia’, in International Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2008); John D. Ciorciari and Anne Heindel, Hybrid Justice: The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2014); Thomas Hamilton and Michael Ramsden, ‘The Politicisation of Hybrid Courts: Observations from the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia’, International Criminal Law Review 14, no.1 (2014): 115–47.

68 Initially against four accused, but one was found unfit to stand trial and one died in 2013.

69 Introductory Submission, Nuon Chea and Others (002/19-09-2007/ ECCC-D3), Office of the Co-Prosecutors (July 18, 2007).

70 United Nations, ‘Guidance Note of the Secretary General: United Nations Approach to Transitional Justice’, https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/TJ_Guidance_Note_March_2010FINAL.pdf (accessed December 5, 2017), 3.

71 Carol Cohn and Sara Ruddick, ‘A Feminist Ethical Perspective on Weapons of Mass Destruction’, in Ethics and Weapons of Mass Destruction: Religious and Secular Perspectives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 405–35.

72 Vesna Kesić, ‘Muslim Women, Croatian Women, Serbian Women, Albanian women’, in Balkan as Metaphor: Between Globalisation and Fragmentation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), 311–22.

73 See also Bell et al., ‘Justice Discourses in Transition’; Eilish Rooney, ‘Women’s Equality in Northern Ireland’s Transition: Intersectionality in Theory and Place’, Feminist Legal Studies 14 (2006): 353–75; Niamh Reilly, ‘Seeking Gender Justice in Post-conflict Transitions: Towards a Transformative Women’s Human Rights Approach’, International Journal of Law in Context 3, no. 2 (2007): 155–72.

74 Human Security Report Project, Sexual Violence, Education, and War: Beyond the Mainstream Narrative (Vancouver: Human Security Press, 2012), 20.

75 This was also noted by the CEDAW Committee in Concluding Observations.

76 Cambodian Defenders Project, ‘Women’s Hearing: True Voices of Women Under the Khmer Rouge. Report of the Proceedings of the 2011 Women’s Hearing on Sexual Violence During the Khmer Rouge Regime’, http://gbvkr.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Report-on-2011-Womens-Hearing_Phnom-Penh.pdf (accessed December 5, 2017).

77 Beini Ye, ‘Transitional Justice Through the Cambodian Women’s Hearings’, Cambodia Law and Policy Journal 3, no. 2 (2014): 23–38.

78 Amnesty International, ‘Breaking the Silence: Sexual Violence in Cambodia’, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa23/001/2010/en/ (accessed December 5, 2017).

79 In 2007, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in Cambodia revised the Chbab Srey and removed some of the passages from the educational curriculum in schools, with the remainder of the code of conduct for women to be still taught in school grades 7 to 9.

80 See also CEDAW Committee., Consideration of Reports Submitted by State Parties Under Article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women: Cambodia (Geneva: CEDAW Committee, 2011).

81 Mona Lilja, Resisting Gendered Norms: Civil Society, the Juridical and the Political Space in Cambodia (New York: Routledge, 2013), 31.

82 CEDAW Committee, Consideration of Reports, para. 10.

83 Chinkin and Charlesworth, ‘Building Women into Peace’, 941.

84 Nahla Valji, ‘Gender Justice and Reconciliation: Occasional Paper’, Dialog on Globalisation, No. 35 (Berlin: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2007), 4.

85 Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MoWA), Violence Against Women: A Baseline Survey, sponsored by GTZ Promoting Women’s Rights Project (PWR), EWMI Human Rights in Cambodia Project (HRCP) and UNIFEM CEDAW South East Asia Programme (Phnom Penh: MoWA, 2005).

86 Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MoWA)., Final Study Report. Violence Against Women: Follow-up Survey, sponsored by GTZ PWR, United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), United Nations Development Program (UNDP) under the Partnership for Gender Equity (UNDP/MoWA/PGE), UNIFEM and AusAID (Phnom Penh: MoWA, 2009).

87 Emma Fulu, Xian Warner, Stephanie Miedema, Rachel Jewkes, Tim Roselli and James Lang, Why Do Some Men Use Violence and How Can We Prevent It? Quantitative Findings from the United Nations Multi-country Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok: UNDP, UNFPA, UN Women and UNV, 2013).

88 Ministry of Women’s Affairs. , Final Study Report.

89 See Valji, ‘Gender Justice and Reconciliation’, discussing the case of Rwanda.

90 Cambodian Human Rights and Development Association (ADHOC), Rape: Attitudes and Solutions in Cambodia (Phnom Penh: ADHOC, 2004).

91 Information correct as of January 2018.

92 See Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MoWA), National Survey on Women’s Health and Live Experiences in Cambodia (Phnom Penh: MoWA, 2015).

93 Fulu et al., Why Do Some Men Use Violence?

94 United Nations General Assembly, Declaration of the High-level Meeting of the General Assembly on the Rule of Law at the National and International Levels (A/RES/67/1, 2012), para. 5.

95 Based on the Economist Intelligence Unit Index, which takes into account five criteria: electoral process and pluralism; civil liberties; the functioning of government; political participation; and political culture (http://www.eiu.com/topic/democracy-index) (accessed July 6, 2018). In 2017, Cambodia was ranked below other post-conflict countries, such as Timor-Leste, Colombia and Liberia.

96 WHO, ‘Promoting Gender Equality’.

97 Christine Chinkin, ‘The Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Post-conflict’, http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/women/docs/Paper_Protection_ESCR.pdf (accessed December 5, 2017).

98 The outreach programmes focusing on young people include the ‘Youth for Peace and Reconciliation Project’. For more, see: http://yfpcambodia.org/index.php?p=submenu.php&menuId=3&subMenuId=36 (accessed July 6, 2018).

99 See Christoph Sperfeldt, Melanie Hyde and Mychelle Balthazard, Voices for Reconciliation: Assessing Media Outreach and Survivor Engagement for Case 002 at the Khmer Rouge Trials (Stanford, CA: WSD HANDA Center for Human Rights, 2016); Heinrich Böll Stiftung, ‘Cambodia: Women’s Hearing with the Young Generation’, https://kh.boell.org/en/2014/08/14/womens-hearing-young-generation (accessed December 5, 2017).

100 Jack Mezirow, ‘Perspective Transformation’, Adult Education Quarterly 28, no. 2 (1978): 100–10; Robert D. Boyd and Gordon J. Myers, ‘Transformative Education’, International Journal of Lifelong Education 7, no. 4 (1988): 261–84.

101 Madeleine Rees and Christine Chinkin, ‘Exposing the Gendered Myth of Post-conflict Transition: The Transformative Power of Economic and Social Rights’, New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 48, no. 4 (2016): 1211–26.

102 See, for example, Bradley and Szablewska discussing the protectionist laws affecting the safety and rights of sex workers in Cambodia: Clare Bradley and Natalia Szablewska, ‘Anti-trafficking (Ill) Efforts: The Legal Regulation of Women’s Bodies and Relationships in Cambodia’, Social & Legal Studies 25, no. 4 (2016): 461–88.

103 Frances Raday, ‘Gender and Democratic Citizenship: The Impact of CEDAW’, International Journal of Constitutional Law 10, no. 2 (2012): 512–30, 515.

104 Larry Diamond and Leonardo Morlino, eds., Assessing the Quality of Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005).