“All grand tories:” Loyalism in the trans-Appalachian west during the revolutionary war

ABSTRACT

Loyalism was a potent force in the Trans-Appalachian West during the American Revolution. However, the experiences of western Loyalists differed from those elsewhere and provide a broader understanding of the forces affecting Loyalism in the British Empire. There were few reasons for western Loyalists to declare their sympathies and even fewer opportunities to seek assistance from the British. Geography meant that western Loyalists were isolated and could not cooperate effectively with the British government and army, while the threat of Indian attack also gave Loyalists and Whigs a common cause. Consequently, they lacked a clear identity, especially as most westerners were, to some degree, disaffected. Indeed, many frontier “patriots,” from George Rogers Clark to Daniel Boone, were associated with disaffection, if not outright Loyalism. Finally, the reintegration of Loyalists into western society after the Revolution meant that memories of Loyalism were written out of family and local histories.

KEYWORDS:

• American revolution
• backcountry
• loyalism
• trans-Appalachian West
• Kentucky
• frontier

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 John Dabney Shane Interview with William Clinkenbeard, Kentucky Papers, 11CC55.

2 Siebert, “Kentucky’s Struggle,” 113.

3 Bancroft, History of the United States, 8:109, 318.

4 Aron, How the West was Lost, 73.

5 Friend, Kentucke’s Frontiers, 72.

6 See for example Hoffman, Tate, and Albert, eds., An Uncivil War; Humphrey, Land and Liberty; Barnes and Calhoun, “Loyalist Discourse,” 218–228.

7 Asbury, Journal of Francis Asbury, 2:82; Rev. David Barrow’s Journal, Kentucky Papers, 12CC169; Rohrbough, Trans-Appalachian Frontier, 36–37.

8 John Dabney Shane interview with William Clinkenbeard, Kentucky Papers, 11CC65; Asbury, Journal of Francis Asbury, 2:82.

9 Hoffman, Simon Girty Turncoat Hero; Nelson, Man of Distinction Among Them; Calloway, “‘We Have Always Been the Frontier’,” 39–52; Van Buskirk, Generous Enemies.

10 Col. Arthur Campbell to Col. William Preston, 3 July 1780, “Preston Papers” 316–317. Cornwallis to Clinton, 30 June 1780, Records of the Colonial Office CO5/100 107–108; Tillson, “Localist Roots of Backcountry Loyalism” 285–307; Russell, American Revolution, 153–154.

11 Hamilton to Haldimand, 24 January 1779 CO42/39 109, The National Archives, UK.

12 Deposition of Michael Jackson, 27 April 1779, Sir Henry Clinton to Lord George Germain, 26 July 261779, Records of the Colonial Office CO5/237 124, CO5/80 220; Sheehan, ‘“The Famous Hair Buyer General’,” 1–28.

13 Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom; Walker, Black Loyalists; Curry, Freedom and Resistance.

14 Allen, His Majesty’s Indian Allies.

15 Skaggs, “The Sixty Years’ War for the Great Lakes,” 1–20; Perkins, Border Life, 14.

16 John Dabney Shane interview with Isaac Clinkenbeard, John Dabney Shane interview with William Clinkenbeard, John Dabney Shane interview with John Craig, John Dabney Shane interview with Miss Campbell, Kentucky Papers, 11CC1, 11CC58, 12CC145, 13CC82–87; Michael Huffnagle to William Moore, 30 July 1782, Hazard, Pennsylvania Archives 1st Ser., 9: 596.

17 John Stuart to Lord George Germain, 10 March 1777, Records of the Colonial Office CO5/229 117–120; Piecuch, Three Peoples, 72–73.

18 Slover et al., Narratives of a Late Expedition, 10–12; Faragher, Daniel Boone.

19 John Dabney Shane interview with Josiah Collins, John Dabney Shane interview with Herman Bowman, Kentucky Papers, 12CC102 13CC173. Alexander, Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity.

20 John Dabney Shane Interview with William Clinkenbeard, Kentucky Papers, 11CC63.

21 Parkinson, Common Cause, 539–542; Fisher, “Fit Instruments in a Howling Wilderness,” 647–680.

22 Precis of Operations on the Canadian Frontier, CO 5/253 9–11; Nelson, General Sir Guy Carleton, 92–93.

23 Board of Trade to Sir Guy Carleton, 26 March 1777, CO 5/223 170–171.

24 Henry Hamilton to John Stuart, 25 December 1778, Records of the Colonial Office CO5/80 163.

25 Harper, Unsettling the West, 103–104, 12; Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 158–181; Piecuch, Three Peoples, One King, 63–72.

26 Gabriel Madison to William Madison, 10 April 1780, Virginia Papers, 5ZZ73.

27 James Marshall to Joseph Reed, 8 August 1781, Hazard, Pennsylvania Archives, 1st Series, 9:344–345; Barr, A Colony Sprung from Hell, 235–238.

28 Petition of Trustees at Fort Jefferson, 13 June 131780, Virginia Papers, 5ZZ73; Watlington, Partisan Spirit.

29 Proceedings of Montgomery and Botetourt County Courts, William Preston Papers, 5QQ73-79; Evans, “Trouble in the Backcountry,” 190.

30 Crow, “Liberty Men and Loyalists,” 126–178; Moore, “The Local Origins of Allegiance in Revolutionary South Carolina” 26–41.

31 James Campbell to Anthony Forster, 9 September 1779, Records of the Colonial Office CO5/157 33–34.

32 Charles Grant to Bouquet, 9 March 1765, Callender to Bouquet, 11 March 1765, Waddell et al., eds., Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:763, 64–65; Kenny, Peaceable Kingdom Lost; Hinderaker and Mancall, At the Edge of Empire, 135–137; Tiedemann, “A Tumultuous People,” 387–431; Tillson, “Militia and Popular Political Culture,” 285–307.

33 Barksdale, “Introduction: Kentucky and the Struggle for the Early American West,” 298; Barksdale, “Our Rebellious Neighbours,” 5–32; Slaughter, Whiskey Rebellion; Barksdale, Lost State of Franklin: America’s First Secession; Brannon, From Revolution to Reunion.

34 Bennett, A Few Lawless Vagabonds; Calhoon, Tory Insurgents.

35 Van Buskirk, Generous Enemies.

36 Evans, “Trouble in the Backcountry,” 179–212.

37 Proceedings of Montgomery and Botetourt County Courts, William Preston Papers, 5QQ73-79.

38 Hay to Haldimand, 2 September1784, Loyalists Names, Detroit, 2 September 1784, List of Persons and Families who wish to settle under the British Government at Detroit from near Fort Pitt, 2 September1784, Haldimand Papers, 21783: 412, 414, 415.

39 Aron, How the West was Lost, 58–81; Bouton, Taming Democracy; Slaughter, Whiskey Rebellion.

40 Extract of a Letter from Capt Bird to Major De Peyster, 24 July 1780, Haldimand Papers, 21760: 331; Chopra, Unnatural Rebellion; Egnal, A Mighty Empire.

41 Harper, Unsettling the West, 67–76; Weaver, The Great Land Rush, 68–75; Holton, Forced Founders, 175–188; Aron, How the West was Lost, 58–81.

42 Brown, King’s Friends.

43 Charles Lynch to William Preston, 17 August 1780, Nancy Deveraux to William Preston, 1780, William Preston Papers, 5QQ57–58, 58.

44 Robert Johnson to Patrick Henry, 5 December 1786 Palmer, Calendar of Virginia State Papers, 4:191.

45 Drake, A History of Appalachia, 68.

46 Virginia Gazette, 27 August 1777; Warrant for the Arrest of John McDonald, 24 July 1782, James Duggless Confession, 17 August 1780, William Preston Papers, 5QQ43, 59; William Preston to William Fleming, 2 December 1777, Virginia Papers 2ZZ43; Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large, 9:281–283.

47 Gray, “Colonel Robert Gray’s Observations,” 145.

48 Ibid., 149.

49 William Preston to Patrick Henry, 16 January 1779, “Preston Papers,” 292.

50 Walter Crockett to William Preston, 7 April 1779, Deposition of Captain John Cox, “The Preston Papers Relating to Western Virginia” 371–372, 73. Walter Crocket to William Preston, 7 April 1779, “Preston Papers,” 302.

51 Col. William Christian to Col. William Fleming, 23 July 1779, Virginia Papers, 2ZZ81.

52 Patrick Ferguson to Cornwallis, 30 May 1780, Charles Cornwallis Papers, 30/11/2 58.

53 Col. William Preston’s Account of the Loyalist Plot, March 1780, Col. William Preston to Gov. Thomas Jefferson, March 1780, William Preston Papers, 5QQ27, 28.

54 Col. Arthur Campbell to Col. William Preston, 3 July 1780, “Preston Papers,” 316–317. Cornwallis to Clinton, 30 June 1780, Records of the Colonial Office CO5/100 107–108; Russell, American Revolution, 153–154.

55 Col. Arthur Campbell to Maj. William Edmiston, 24 June 1780, Col. Arthur Campbell to Maj. William Edmiston, 25 June 1780, Kings Mountain Papers, 9DD21, 22.

56 William Preston to Thomas Jefferson, 8 August 1780, Boyd et al., eds., Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 3:533–534; James McGavock to William Preston, 30 June 1780, “Preston Papers,” 315. John Heavin to William Preston, 22 July 1780, William Preston to Thomas Heavin, 14 August 1780, James Duggless Confession, William Preston Papers, 5QQ42, 55, 59; Col. William Campbell to Col. Arthur Campbell, 25 July 1780, Kings Mountain Papers, 8DD4-5.

57 Arthur Campbell to William Preston, 13 August 1780, Kings Mountain Papers, 8DD5. Anderson-Green, “The New River Frontier Settlement on the Virginia-North Carolina Border 1760–1820,” 413–431.

58 John Adams to Benjamin Rush, 19 March 1812, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-5768.

59 Taylor, American Revolutions, 212.

60 Lofaro, Daniel Boone; Faragher, Daniel Boone, 105, 143.

61 Young, ed., Westward into Kentucky, 63–64; Gov. Henry Hamilton to Sir Guy Carleton, 25 April 1778, Thwaites and Kellogg, eds., Frontier Defense, 283–284.

62 Brown, Frontiersman.

63 George Rogers Clark to Provisionary Executive Council, 5 February 1793, George Rogers Clark Papers, 55J1; Nester, George Rogers Clark, 299–300.

64 John Dabney Shane Interview with William Clinkenbeard, John Dabney Shane Interview with Josiah Collins, John Dabney Shane interview with William Moseby, John Dabney Shane interview with Samuel Gibson, Kentucky Papers, 11CC55-56, 11CC105, 11CC270-74, 12CC122.

65 Gen. Edward Hand to Maj. Horatio Gates, 14 May 1778, Pittsburgh and Northwest Virginia Papers, 3NN 16-18.

66 Daniel Broadhead to George Washington, 27 March 1781, Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-05218. George Washington to Daniel Broadhead, 25 April 1781, Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-05520. Frontier Retreat, 352–353. Watlington, “Discontent in Frontier Kentucky,” 81–82; Gen. Edward Hand to Maj. Horatio Gates, 14 May 1778, Pittsburgh and Northwest Virginia Papers, 3NN 16-18;

67 John Stuart to Lord George Germain, 23 August 1776, Records of the Colonial Office CO5/77 126.

68 De Peyster to Lt Col Mason Bolton, 16 May 1780, Michigan Historical Collections, 19:519; Hay to Haldimand, Detroit, 2 September 1784, Loyalists Names, Detroit, 2 September 1784 List of Persons and Families who wish to settle under the British Government at Detroit from near Fort Pitt, 2 September1784, Haldimand Papers, 21783: 412, 414, 415.

69 Alexander Smith to William Preston, [February 1799], Preston Family Papers, Joyes Collection, Box 1, Folder 10.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Matthew C. Ward

Matthew C. Ward is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Dundee. He is the author of several books and articles on the early Trans-Appalachian West including Breaking The Backcountry: The Seven Years War In Virginia And Pennsylvania 1754–1765 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004) and Making the Frontier Man: Violence, White Manhood, and Authority in the Early Western Backcountry (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2023).