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Articles

“What’s wrong with Blackface?”: theorizing humor ecologies and Blackface as satire

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Pages 215-233 | Received 19 Oct 2021, Accepted 16 May 2022, Published online: 19 Feb 2023
 

ABSTRACT

In this essay, I analyze the rhetorical implications of removing sitcom episodes containing Blackface from streaming platforms. By situating Blackface performances within what I call their humor ecologies, I attend to the dynamic interplay between comedic reflexivity, racial humor ideology, comic personae, and network influence. I argue that these factors enable audiences to glean meaning from these performances that vary ideologically, and I call into question the value of removing these performances without considering them within their humor ecologies and contexts.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Kristen Hoerl, Robin Boylorn, and the three anonymous reviewers for their support, suggestions, and feedback on earlier drafts of this essay.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1 John Ridley, “Op-Ed: Hey, HBO, ‘Gone With the Wind’ Romanticizes the Horrors of Slavery. Take It off Your Platform for Now,” Los Angeles Times, June 8, 2020, sec. Opinion, https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2020-06-08/hbo-max-racism-gone-with-the-wind-movie.

2 Erica Gonzales, “Gone with the Wind Returns to HBO Max with a Disclaimer About Its Portrayal of Slavery,” Harper’s BAZAAR, June 25, 2020, https://www.harpersbazaar.com/culture/film-tv/a32824639/gone-with-the-wind-hbo-max.

3 Rebecca Alter, “Every Blackface Episode and Scene That’s Been Pulled from Streaming So Far,” Vulture, June 29, 2020, https://www.vulture.com/2020/06/blackface-tv-episodes-scenes-removed-streaming.html.

4 Amanda D. Lotz, “Evolution or Revolution? Television in Transformation,” Critical Studies in Television: International Journal of Television Studies 13, no. 4 (December 2018): 491–94, https://doi.org/10.1177/1749602018796757; Amanda D. Lotz, The Television Will Be Revolutionized (New York: New York University Press, 2007), 241; Kevin Sanson and Gregory Steirer, “Hulu, Streaming, and the Contemporary Television Ecosystem,” Media, Culture & Society 41, no. 8 (November 2019): 1210–27, https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443718823144.

5 James Anderson and Amie D. Kincaid, “Media Subservience and Satirical Subversiveness: The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, The Propaganda Model and the Paradox of Parody,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 30, no. 3 (August 2013): 171–88, https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2013.771276; Jennifer L. Pozner, Reality Bites Back: The Troubling Truth about Guilty Pleasure TV (Berkeley: Seal Press, 2010).

6 Anderson and Kincaid, “Media Subservience and Satirical Subversiveness”; Michelle Colpean and Meg Tully, “Not Just a Joke: Tina Fey, Amy Schumer, and the Weak Reflexivity of White Feminist Comedy,” Women’s Studies in Communication 42, no. 2 (April 3, 2019): 161–80, https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2019.1610924; Elise Kramer, “The Playful Is Political: The Metapragmatics of Internet Rape-Joke Arguments,” Language in Society 40, no. 2 (April 2011): 137–68, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404511000017; Christopher A. Medjesky, “How Can Rape Be Funny? Comic Persona, Irony, and the Limits of Rape Jokes,” in Standing Up, Speaking Out: Stand-Up Comedy and the Rhetoric of Social Change (Milton Park: Routledge, 2016); Jonathan P. Rossing, “Deconstructing Postracialism: Humor as a Critical, Cultural Project,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 36, no. 1 (January 2012): 44–61, https://doi.org/10.1177/0196859911430753.

7 Kheven Lee LaGrone, “From Minstrelsy to Gangsta Rap: The ‘Nigger’ as Commodity for Popular American Entertainment,” Journal of African American Men 5, no. 2 (2000): 117–31.

8 Pozner, Reality Bites Back, 183.

9 Ronald L. Jackson III, Scripting the Black Masculine Body: Identity, Discourse, and Racial Politics in Popular Media (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006), 25; E. Patrick Johnson, Appropriating Blackness: Performance and the Politics of Authenticity (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003).

10 Johnson, Appropriating Blackness; LaGrone, “From Minstrelsy to Gangsta Rap”, Bryan J. McCann, “Proletarian Blackface: Appropriation and Class Struggle in Mike Judge’s Office Space: Proletarian Blackface,” Communication, Culture & Critique 9, no. 3 (September 2016): 362–78, https://doi.org/10.1111/cccr.12120; David Moscowitz, “‘You Talkin’ To Me?’ Mediating Postmodern Blackface in La Haine,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 26, no. 1 (March 2009): 1–18, https://doi.org/10.1080/15295030802684042.

11 Bryan J. McCann, “Proletarian Blackface.”

12 Johnson, Appropriating Blackness; Pozner, Reality Bites Back.

13 McCann, “Proletarian Blackface,” 364.

14 Kramer, “The Playful Is Political”; Medjesky, “Standing Up, Speaking Out.”

15 John Fiske, “Television: Polysemy and Popularity,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 3, no. 4 (December 1986): 391–408, https://doi.org/10.1080/15295038609366672; Kramer, “The Playful Is Political”; Lisa Glebatis Perks, “Polysemic Scaffolding: Explicating Discursive Clashes in Chappelle’s Show,” Communication, Culture & Critique 3, no. 2 (June 2010): 270–89, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-9137.2010.01070.x.

16 Perks, “Polysemic Scaffolding,” 275.

17 Robert Hariman, “Political Parody and Public Culture,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 94, no. 3 (August 2008): 247–72, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630802210369; Kramer, “The Playful Is Political”; Perks, “Polysemic Scaffolding,” 278.

18 David Kaufer, “Irony and Rhetorical Strategy,” Philosophy and Rhetoric 10, no. 2 (1977): 90–110.

19 Colpean and Tully, “Not Just a Joke,” 171.

20 Colpean and Tully, “Not Just a Joke”; Medjesky, “Standing Up, Speaking Out.”

21 Perks, “Polysemic Scaffolding,” 275.

22 Kramer, “The Playful Is Political,” 138.

23 Kramer, 138.

24 Colpean and Tully, “Not Just a Joke”; Medjesky, “Standing Up, Speaking Out,” 204; Ethan Thompson, “‘I Am Not Down with That’: King of the Hill and Sitcom Satire,” Journal of Film and Video 61, no. 2 (2009): 38–51, https://doi.org/10.1353/jfv.0.0029.

25 Anderson and Kincaid, “Media Subservience and Satirical Subversiveness”; Colpean and Tully, “Not Just a Joke”; Medjesky, “Standing Up, Speaking Out”; Perks, “Polysemic Scaffolding”; Rossing, “Deconstructing Postracialism.”

26 Anderson and Kincaid, “Media Subservience and Satirical Subversiveness,” 175.

27 Amanda D. Lotz, “House: Narrative Complexity,” in How to Watch Television, ed. Ethan Thompson and Jason Mittell (New York: New York University Press, 2013).

28 Lotz, “House.”

29 Medjesky, “Standing Up, Speaking Out”; Taylor Nygaard and Jorie Lagerwey, Horrible White People: Gender, Genre, and Television’s Precarious Whiteness (New York: New York University Press, 2020).

30 Medjesky, “Standing Up, Speaking Out,” 197.

31 Roberta Pearson, “Anatomising Gilbert Grissom: The Structure and Function of the Televisual Character,” in Reading CSI: Crime TV Under the Microscope, ed. Michael Allen (London, New York: I. B. Tauris, 2007), 39–56.

32 Medjesky, “Standing Up, Speaking Out,” 201.

33 Rossing, “Deconstructing Postracialism”; Eric King Watts, “Postracial Fantasies, Blackness, and Zombies,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 14, no. 4 (October 2, 2017): 317–33, https://doi.org/10.1080/14791420.2017.1338742.

34 Alyson Manda Cole, The Cult of True Victimhood: From the War on Welfare to the War on Terror (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007); Rossing, “Deconstructing Postracialism”; Watts, “Postracial Fantasies, Blackness, and Zombies.”

35 Kristen Hoerl, “The Impossible Woman and Sexist Realism on NBC’s Parks and Recreation,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 107, no. 4 (October 2, 2021): 388, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2021.1984552.

36 Colpean and Tully, “Not Just a Joke”; Medjesky, “Standing Up, Speaking Out.”

37 Rossing, “Deconstructing Postracialism,” 57.

38 Anderson and Kincaid, “Media Subservience and Satirical Subversiveness”; Lotz, “Evolution or Revolution?”

39 Eileen R. Meehan, “Understanding How the Popular Becomes Popular: The Role of Political Economy in the Study of Popular Communication,” Popular Communication 5, no. 3 (August 10, 2007): 161, https://doi.org/10.1080/15405700701384830.

40 Anderson and Kincaid, “Media Subservience and Satirical Subversiveness,” 176.

41 Nygaard and Lagerwey, Horrible White People, 46.

42 Nygaard and Lagerwey, 50.

43 Isobel Lewis, “Scrubs Creator Felt Show Had a ‘Free Pass’ to Use Blackface Due to Diverse Cast and Crew: Three Episodes Containing Blackface Were Removed from Hulu Last Week,” Independent, July 1, 2020, https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/scrubs-blackface-hulu-episodes-removed-apology-bill-lawrence-zach-braff-a9595151.html.

44 Will Thorne, “‘Scrubs’ Episodes Featuring Blackface Removed from Hulu,” Variety, June 24, 2020, https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/scrubs-blackface-episodes-removed-hulu-1234648586/.

45 Lewis, “Scrubs Creator Felt Show Had a ‘Free Pass.’”

46 Lewis, “Scrubs Creator Felt Show Had a ‘Free Pass.’”

47 Tommy J. Curry, The Man-Not: Race, Class, Genre, and the Dilemmas of Black Manhood (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2017).

48 McCann, “Proletarian Blackface.”

49 McCann, “Proletarian Blackface”; Eric King Watts, “Border Patrolling and ‘Passing’ in Eminem’s 8 Mile,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 22, no. 3 (August 2005): 187–206, https://doi.org/10.1080/07393180500201686.

50 Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America, Fourth edition (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2014); Rossing, “Deconstructing Postracialism”; Watts, “Postracial Fantasies, Blackness, and Zombies.”

51 Curry, The Man-Not.

52 Curry, 34.

53 Watts, “Border Patrolling and ‘Passing’ in Eminem’s 8 Mile,” 191.

54 Curry, The Man-Not; Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, First edition, new ed (New York: Grove Press, 2008).

55 David Chison Oh, “‘Opting out of That’: White Feminism’s Policing and Disavowal of Anti-Racist Critique in The Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 37, no. 1 (January 1, 2020): 58–70, https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2019.1690666.

56 Josef Adalian, “30 Rock Is Pulling Blackface Episodes from Streaming Platforms and TV Reruns,” Vulture, June 22, 2020, https://www.vulture.com/2020/06/30-rock-blackface-episodes-removed.html.

57 Colpean and Tully, “Not Just a Joke,” 162.

58 Will Thorne, “‘30 Rock’ Blackface Episodes Pulled from Streaming, Syndication at Tina Fey and NBCU’s Request,” Variety, June 22, 2020, https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/30-rock-blackface-episodes-removed-tina-fey-1234645607/.

59 Thorne, “‘30 Rock’.”

60 Colpean and Tully, “Not Just a Joke.”

61 Anderson and Kincaid, “Media Subservience and Satirical Subversiveness.”

62 Adalian, “30 Rock.”

63 Jennifer Maas, “‘The Office’ Season 9 Christmas Episode Re-Edited to Remove Blackface Scene (Exclusive),” The Wrap, June 26, 2020, https://www.thewrap.com/the-office-blackface-episode-scene-removed-netflix-dwights-christmas-belsnickel-black-peter/; Will Thorne, “‘The Office’ Blackface Scene Edited Out, Netflix Pulls ‘Community’ Blackface Episode,” Variety, June 26, 2020, https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/the-office-blackface-scene-edited-out-community-episode-pulled-netflix-1234691427/.

64 Thorne, “‘The Office’ Blackface Scene Edited.”

65 Walt Disney Company, “Diversity, Equity & Inclusion,” Walt Disney Company, 2022, https://thewaltdisneycompany.com/diversity-inclusion/; Walt Disney Company, “Stories Matter,” Reimagine Tomorrow: Where We All Belong, 2022, https://reimaginetomorrow.disney.com/stories-matter.

66 Alter, “Every Blackface Episode and Scene;” Sharareh Drury, “Hulu Removes ‘Golden Girls’ Episode with Blackface Scene,” Hollywood Reporter, June 27, 2020, https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/hulu-removes-golden-girls-episode-blackface-scene-1300808/.

67 Pete Chatmon, “The Gang Makes Lethal Weapon 7,” It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia (Hulu, December 1, 2021).

68 Mary Bucholtz, “Race and the Re-Embodied Voice in Hollywood Film,” Language & Communication 31, no. 3 (July 2011): 259, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2011.02.004.

69 Thompson, “‘I Am Not Down with That,’” 41.

70 Armond R. Towns, “Rebels of the Underground: Media, Orality, and the Routes of Black Emancipation,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 13, no. 2 (April 2, 2016): 2, 4, https://doi.org/10.1080/14791420.2015.1119292.

71 Joe Otterson, “‘It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia’ Renewed Through Historic Season 18 by FX,” Variety, December 10, 2020, https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/its-always-sunny-in-philadelphia-renewed-season-18-fx-1234850926/.

72 Caroline Framke, “Why Removing Blackface Episodes Is ‘Just Trying to Band-Aid Over History,’” Variety, July 1, 2020, https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/blackface-episodes-pulled-30-rock-golden-girls-community-1234694796/.

73 Pozner, Reality Bites Back.

74 Stuart Hall, “The Whites of Their Eyes: Racist Ideologies and the Media,” in Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Critical Reader, Third edition, ed. Gail Dines and Jean McMahon Humez (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2011), 83.

75 Casey Ryan Kelly, “Donald J. Trump and the Rhetoric of White Ambivalence,” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 23, no. 2 (2020): 195–223, https://doi.org/10.14321/rhetpublaffa.23.2.0195.

76 Kelly, “Donald J. Trump,” 198.

77 Hall, “The Whites of Their Eyes”; Sarah Sharma, “Taxis as Media: A Temporal Materialist Reading of the Taxi-Cab,” Social Identities 14, no. 4 (July 2008): 457–64, https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630802211910; Armond R. Towns, “‘What Do We Wanna Be?’ Black Radical Imagination and the Ends of the World,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 17, no. 1 (January 2, 2020): 75–80, https://doi.org/10.1080/14791420.2020.1723801.

78 Stuart Hall, “What Is This ‘Black’ in Black Popular Culture?,” in Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies, ed. David Morley and Kuan-Hsing Chen (London, New York: Routledge, 1996), 475.

79 Hall, “The Whites of Their Eyes,” 82.

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