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Abstract
In this essay I examine the emergence of the 2002 South Korean candlelight vigils, with a focus on how South Korea's post-Cold War generation collectively defined two Korean girls’ deaths by a US military vehicle as a “national tragedy” and imagined themselves as a collective opponent of perceived Cold War politics. The Internet discourse that Korean “netizens” generated in the wake of the incident shows that Korea's Internet users interpreted and contested US hegemony by inventing local vernacular discourses: they created a collective identity based on shared feelings, invented criteria for reasonableness, and employed nontraditional forms of civic discourse. My analysis calls for attention to the vernacular discursive practices of social actors, who mediate, negotiate, and transform the manner in which global power relationships influence them within a local context.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Cara Finnegan, Nancy Abelmann, Stephen Hartnett, John Sloop, the two anonymous reviewers, and her graduate student colleagues for their valuable feedback on the essay.
Notes
1. Unless noted otherwise, Korean sources are my own translations. In general, Korean words and names in this study conform to a transliteration system proclaimed by the Korean government in 2000. Personal names are written family name first, followed by a space and the given name. In principle, syllables in given names are not separated by a hyphen, but when confusing, given names are hyphenated.
2. I chose the Moim as the object of analysis for three reasons. First, Moim represents smaller websites which netizens opened and maintained without the initiation of organized social movement groups. Throughout the course of the vigils, three major websites served as the most active fora for the netizens to build collective opinions, namely: Ohmynews.com, a liberal Internet newspaper; the website of Migun Changkapch'a Yo˘jungsaen Ko Shin Hyosoon, Shim Mison Salinsago˘n Po˘mgukmin Taech'aekwiwonhoe (the Pan-Korean Community for Two Girls Killed by a US Armored Vehicle—PKC), a civic organization that nationalist and radical social activists established in the wake of the girls’ deaths; and VoiceofPeople.com, an online news portal affiliated with the radical nationalist movement. Online discussions on these websites were primarily initiated by news and opinions posted by reporters and activists. Meanwhile, on netizen-created websites like Moim, netizens initiated and developed discussions. Second, Moim served as a sifting mechanism for netizens and research. During the peak of the vigils, more than 10,000 images and messages were updated daily on the major websites. Concerned netizens dedicated to the cause of the girls’ deaths copied prominent images and messages from the larger websites and posted them onto smaller websites such as Moim. Moim opened on June 27, 2002, making it one of the earlier websites dedicated to the girls, and was hosted by Daum.net, the largest portal service providing individuals and groups with free online communities (called Internet Cafés). It is only one of dozens of cafés dedicated to the girls on Daum.net, and one of hundreds of such communities online. Moim had approximately 7,000–8,000 members in 2002.
3. Arjun Appadurai, “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy,” in Modernity At Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 27–47; and David Harvey, The New Imperialism (London: Oxford University Press, 2003).
4. Kent A. Ono and John M. Sloop, Shifting Borders: Rhetoric, Immigration, and California's Proposition 187 (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2002), 12–13.
5. Ono and Sloop, 15.
6. Cara A. Finnegan, “Recognizing Lincoln: Image Vernaculars in Nineteenth-Century Visual Culture,” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 8 (2005): 31–58.
7. Gerald A. Hauser, Vernacular Voices: The Rhetoric of Publics and Public Spheres (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1999), 89–92.
8. “Spread of Anti-American Movement,” Korea Times, 4 December 2002. The South Korea–US alliance was based on wars they fought together and therefore was honored throughout the history of Korea. According to recently publicized archival records, during the Korean War 137,875 South Korean and 36,516 US soldiers died; 19,392 South Korean and 739 American soldiers were missing in action; and 450,745 South Korean and 468,659 US personnel were wounded between June 25, 1950 and July 27, 1953. See “On Another War Anniversary,” Korea Herald, 24 June 2003.
9. Hyung-ki Kim, “On the Recent Boycott of 007,” Chosun Ilbo, 24 January 2003; Heo Mane, “Why Anti-Americanism?” Korea Times, 23 January 2003.
10. Moonjae Lee and Hyungseok Cha, “'02 the Person of the Year’ Is the Activist-Netizen,” Sisa Journal, 23 December 2002, http://www.sisapress.com/news/read.php?idxno=1609 (accessed 4 July 2006).
11. Sun-hee Ahn, “Generation P: A New Leader of Society,” The Hankyoreh, 9 June 2003, 15.
12. Deok-hyun Kim, “Wiring Korea: Broadband Internet Changes Lifestyle,” Korea Times, 14 May 2003.
13. Chalmers A. Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2004), 89.
14. Meredith Woo-Cumings, “South Korean Anti-Americanism,” Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper 93 (2003), http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp93.html (accessed 16 December 2006).
15. Young-rim Hong, “Opinion Poll: Koreans Unfavorable of the US,” Chosun Ilbo, 4 March 2002, 7; Sook-jong Lee, “Anti-Americanism in Korean Society: A Survey-based Analysis,” Joint US–Korea Academic Studies 14 (2004): 183–204.
16. Sook-jong Lee, “Anti-Americanism …,” 186.
17. Young-sup Kwak, “Court Clears US Soldier of Killing Korean Girls,” Korea Herald, 21 November 2002.
18. “Spread of Anti-American Movement,” Korea Times, 4 December 2002; Hong, Soon-il, “Flurry of Anti-Americanism,” Korea Times, 11 December 2002.
19. Chung-Laden, “It Drives Me Crazy,” Moim, 21 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Dorongii, “We are Not a Colony!!,” Moim, 22 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Oasis, “Cyber Terror on the White House on December 1,” Moim, 21 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
20. A Life For You, “Korea? A Developed Country? No Kidding:P:P:P,” Moim, 24 November 2002, http://café.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005);*Sunflower™, “.… Indeed.… – –∘,” Moim, 24 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
21. Nickname. “If the US Is Not Guilty,” Moim, 25 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
22. I Hate My Country, “In a Nutshell, We're Doomed to Be Subordinate to the US,” Moim, 21 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
23. This parody was posted more than once in the wake of the verdict. For example, 
LOVEØIS, “I Am,,,” Moim, 26 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Wansoo Kim, “Osama Bin Laden Found Not Guilty at the Court!!!,” Moim, 22 November 2002, http://café.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
24. Mikhail Bakhtin, Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, ed. and trans. Caryl Emerson (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984).
25. Hauser, 89.
26. Huhui, “Well, I'm Speechless … Those GI's Are Beasts …,” Moim, 23 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); T.T., “Damn, U.S …,” Moim, 24 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
27. Nautes, “Girls … And … All of You … I'm Sorry..,” Moim, 22 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
28. buzz, “Now,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Gnani, “Alas …,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Dukyeon Kim, “Are We Korean People?,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
29. Soyeon Kim, “Netizen Angma, Who Proposed the Candlelight Vigils, Is the ‘Person of the Year’ Chosen by Ohmynews,” Ohmynews.com, 31 December 2002.
30. Wish You Were Happy, “More Than 20 Members Are Logged on Tonight,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Mr. So˘ninjang, “Let's Go to Kwanghwamun!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!,” Moim, 26 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Wangch'ik, “Let's Meet in Front of the US Embassy on December 1,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
31. Sgt. Walker was transferred to a reserve unit in the US; Sgt. Nino requested to be discharged from military service. Jun Kim, “The Two ‘Acquitted’ Soon to be Transferred and Discharged,” Chosun Ilbo, 26 November 2002, 29.
32. During this period, a number of online posts “debunked” the historical influences of the US in Korea, including the origin of SOFA, as well as GI crimes. For example, a post entitled, “That is the SOFA” traced the historical development of SOFA and its problems. “Must See … The Real America … And the Reality of Korea” and “What the US Has Done to Us for the Last 60 Years” listed the crimes committed by the US troops stationed in Korea since 1946 when they first arrived in Korea. For example, Yuricho'nsa, “Re: That is SOFA,” Moim, 30 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); prefer, “The Great Works (?) by the US!!,” Moim, 30 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); PureMind, “□What the US has done to us for the Last 60 Years,” Moim, 1 December 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
33. Min-goo Kim, “Netizens Attacked and Disabled the USFK Website,” Chosun Ilbo, November 15 2002, 31. Netizens encouraged other netizens to participate in the attack. For example, BroadStone, “Auto Mail Dispatch Program for the December 1 Attack,” Moim, 1 December 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); ⌈No˘ Chosimhae⌋, “Questions about the Cyber Protest,” Moim, 1 December 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); 
Miguk Siro˘, “The Cyber Terror Method.. Changed to Sending E-Mails …!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!,” Moim, 1 December 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
34. Pina, “Let's Demonstrate the Korean People's Power to the US,” Moim, 26 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
35. I 
YOU, “You Have to Participate [in the Cyber Attack,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Pina.
36. Torongii, “I Look Forward to the Day,” Moim, 26 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
37. takizawa, “Breaking News: The G.I's Crushed the Girls Again after Hitting Them Once,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).
38. Dukyeon Kim, “Are We Korean People?” Moim, 27 November 2002,http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Oogibogi, “Great! Korea! Let's Stage a Massive Protest in Front of the US Embassy in Kwanghwamun,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Noir, “ < Call> a Massive National Protest ~~Small-Scale Protests Don't Work Anymore~~,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Pina, “Let's Demonstrate the Korean People's Power to the US,” Moim, 26 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005); Wangch'ik, “Let's Meet in Front of the US Embassy on December 1,” Moim, 27 November 2002, http://cafe.daum.net/dlrtn44 (accessed 15 June 2005).